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... Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling Anide Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling Ministry to Transgender Teenagers (Part Two): Providing Pastoral Care, Support, and Advocacy to Trans Youth 2018, Vol. 72(4) 251-256 () The Author(s) 2018 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1 177/1542305018790277 journals.sagepub.com/home/jpcc SAGE Arthur David Canales Marian University, Indianapolis, USA Abstract This article considers the ministry and pastoral care to transgender teenagers. It begins by offering a brief introduction and then concentrates on the ways or methods for providing pastoral care, support, and advocacy to transgender teenagers. The article suggests a pastoral framework for those in pastoral positions who work with adolescents to minister appropriately and competently to this overlooked sexual minority group and motivate them with a sense of urgency to serve this population more effectively. Keywords Transgender, teenagers, pastoral care, youth ministry Introduction The ultimate evil is not suffering... which is meted out to those who are Gods children. The ultimate evil of oppression... is when it succeeds in making a child of God begin to doubt that he or she is a child of God. (Tutu, 1991, p. 131) As Archbishop Desmond Tutu warns in the epigraph, if Christianity is not careful, it might be responsible for perpetuating the misperception that transgender teenagers are not children of God just because of their sexual identity. Such a mistake would be a travesty. This article hopes to share some insights regarding pastoral methods for those who work with young people and who specifically want to provide pastoral care to and ministry with transgender teenagers. Providing Pastoral Care, Support, and Advocacy The proper stance for Christian communities to all Gods people is one of openness and affirmation, because of the theological reality of imago Dei.1 As stated in part one of this two-part article, imago Dei refers to all people being created in the image and likeness of God no matter if they are, Black or White, female or male, poor or rich, born below the equator or above the equator, homosexual or heterosexual, or transgender or cisgender. Christian communities would be wise to begin to think about appropriate ways to minister to trans youth and begin to provide proper pastoral care, support, and advocacy to this particular sexual and gender minority group. For the parameters of this article, I have scaffolded these three categories from easiest to difficult, that is, pastoral care should be the easiest for Christian communities to integrate into pastoral practice, while advocacy would be more difficult for congregations to implement; of course, it may also depend on the personality and demeanor of the church-community. Pastoral Care Competent pastoral care (and counseling) is steeped in care, compassion, and empathy of the trans personadolescent or adult. There are two areas of pastoral care that merit consideration for those working with and ministering to transgender teenagers: (a) welcoming the trans youth; and (b) utilizing a pastoral care checklist with trans youth. Corresponding author: Arthur David Canales, Marian University, 122 Oldenburg Hall, 3200 Cold Springs Road, Indianapolis, IN 46222, USA. Email: acanales@marian.edu 252 Welcoming the Trans Youth into our Communities. The first step for any Christian church, organization, or ministry would be to acknowledge that transgender teenagers exist, and that it is an acceptable gender expression and a satisfactory way of living (Grossman & DAugelli, 2006, p. 125). Second, welcoming churches, youth ministries, and para-youth ministry organizations would be pastorally sensible to adopt a posture of acceptance, openness, and affirming the human dignity of each and every person who walks through the doors, promoting an ethic of empathy and compassion for all (Canales & Sherman, 2016, p. 46). Third, catechize the entire congregation, but especially the youth ministry, about the transgender issues and their struggles as sexual minorities in society. Fourth, and this is a bit risky (for a traditional, heterosexual, and cisgender2 congregation), preach on transgender topics at Sunday worship, again, from a loving and genuine pastoral position, embracing the person created in imago Del. Fifth, offer discipleship programs for sexual and gender minorities in church to help enhance their faith life and increase their spiritualityall Christians can benefit from further growing in Christ. Sixth, it might be wise if adult members of Christian congregations were catechized and informed about societys gender constructs and the way those concepts contribute to trans youth vulnerability and devalue the spiritual, emotional, physical, and social well-being of transgender teenagers (Grossman & DAugelli, 2006, p. 126). Seventh, and this addresses a larger systemic problern that exists, namely, Christians negative attitudes and theological convictions that adults, have toward trans youth. Negative attitudes and theological convictions play a role in harming transgender teenagers. Evangelical and intersex scholar Megan K. DeFranza notes that communities of faith would be wise to reflect imago Christi in their attitudes, which replicates love, goodness, and kindness (DeFranza, 2015, p. 282). DeFranza states, Imago Christi requires not only just dealings and the recordings of societal oppressions, but also the cultivation of personal holiness, a life of worship, prayer, humility, kindness, generosity, and other virtues.... (DeFranza, 2015, p. 282). In other words, to help eradicate larger systemic issues that exist towards trans youth, Christian communities should focus on gospel values and become imago Christi. Pastoral theologian and transgender advocate Justin E. Tanis recommends a good list for those communities which genuinely want to welcome transgender people into their congregation: (a) offer genuine hospitality; (b) provide nondiscrimination policies and attitudes; (c) demonstrate appropriate and inclusive language; (d) create a visible and audible presence of transgender people and programs; (e) establish provisions of meaningful rituals to mark changes in peoples lives; (f) offer outreach to transgender groups and individuals; (g) provide opportunities for the congregation to learn accurately about transgender issues; and (h) build restrooms that the gender-variant can access (Tanis, Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling 72(4) 2003, p. 122). This list is a good guide for communities to get started and to maintain a welcoming and affirming disposition for trans people. Presbyterian minister James R. Oraker and small group process leader Janis Hahn suggest that designing a program of dialogue might be the path of least resistance for helping Christian communities and ministries to discuss sexual minorities. They offer this brief template as a welcoming model for sexual minorities, which can be used for pastoral care and ministry with transgender teenagers: (a) direct dialogue, an initial and open discussion about trans youth, which includes inviting trans young people to the table of discussion; (b) process, which moves beyond dialogue and examines the strengths and limitations of the issuein this caseengaging trans youth within the church and inviting and calling (as distinct from texting or e-mailing) trans young people to the ministry; (c) small groups, which allows for voices to be heard, stories to be shared, and mutual understanding and discovery about the one persons life and journey (d) establish an event, such as days of reflection, retreat, or conference, and work with the larger community toward that end; and (e) an action plan, which is planning, organizing, and implementing the desired ministry event and bring it to completion (Oraker & Hahn, 2009, pp. 122-123). These are just a few ways that Christian congregations, organizations, and ministries can welcome transgender teenagers. A Pastoral Care Checklist for Trans Youth. Pastoral care is a relationship and it is primarily concerned with human benevolence, empathy, and compassion. Technically, there are no official set standards for pastoral care, but some basic competencies for pastoral care are: empowering; librting; listening; healing; sustaining; guiding; reconciling; and nurturing a person toward God, self, or the other. Queer author and advocate David J. Kundtz and sexual minority scholar Bernard S. Schlager (2007) give a checklist for pastoral caregivers who serve sexual and gender minorities. I use their checklist, with minor alterations, in hopes that it might serve as a rudimentary rubric for pastoral ministers who work with transgender teenagers. 1. Examine your own assumptionsassume that: (a) being trans may not be the issue that brings the adolescent to seek pastoral care; (b) a young person may not wish to explore their sexual identity; (c) because of social pressure and fear, sometimes trans youth avoid identifying themselves as transgender; and (d) nothing is surprising about transgender behavior (Kundtz & Schlager, 2007, p. 81). 2. Be informed about: (a) advocacy programs, help lines, books, web pages, films, and teaching-videos; Canales (b) pastoral counselors, spiritual directors, and psychologists who work with trans people; (c) the doctrines and practices of various Christian denominations regarding transgender issues; and (d) the words and terms you use describing and referring to transgenderism and transsexuality (Kundtz & Schlager, 2007, p. 82). 3. Be self-aware of: (a) your own attitudes and responses, regardless of your own sexual orientation; (b) your own limitations concerning your scope of pastoral care; (c) your own feelings toward the person receiving your pastoral care; and (d) all the boundary issues in your pastoral care relationship (Kundtz & Schlager, 2007, p. 82). 4. Respect your transgender care-receivers: (a) orientation, identity, personal integrity, cultural assumptions, and life style; (b) privacy by not asking inappropriate medical questions pertaining to surgery; (c) personal pain, suffering, and continual struggle with their internal conflicts; and (d) individual capabilities to find their own pastoral solutions (Kundtz & Schlager, 2007, p. 83). Providing pastoral care to trans youth may not come easy for most people who work with adolescents. The natural inclination is to give advice, which is not always recommended or needed; however, the above checklist is a helpful rubric for those who truly want to empower trans youth through pastoral care. Support What does support look like? Support, like advocacy, comes in a myriad of ways. First and foremost, the cultivating of new conversations must take place within our churches and ministries. Baptist pastoral theologian Cody J. Sanders invites his readers to contribute to the lagging literature in our pastoral and practical fields concerning transgender people and issues. Sanders states, We have failed to give equally serious and sustained attention to the concerns of trans people (Sanders, 2016, p. I). Cultivating a culture for transgender teenagers to flourish would be ideal, but creating a climate that does not breed fear, intimidation, harassment and one that fosters a spirit of wellness, openness, affirmation, and integrity would be wonderful. Parents, pastors, and youth ministers will all have to be unified on this front to cultivate a culture of trans awareness and openness. Second and simultaneously, as pastoral ministers, support for transgender teenagers often comes by way of helping parents who struggle with their teens gender and sexuality. Supportive parents are on this trans journey with 253 their teens.3 In addition, teenagers require reassurance from parents and pastoral ministers because there is a large gender spectrum and adolescents are often not aware of the existence of non-binary and non-conforming identities (Brill & Kenny, 2016, p. 170). According to gender diversity experts Stephanie Brill and Lisa Kenny, Some teens struggle with claiming their gender identity because they think that all transgender and non-binary people are gay or lesbian, and they do not feel that they are gay or lesbian (Brill & Kenny, 2016, p. 171). Explaining to adolescents that gender and sexuality are two distinct facets of their self is helpful for transgender teenagers as they embark on their journey of self-discovery. Furthermore, it may be worthwhile to help the trans young people to understand that being transgender or non-binary is about a persons individual gender identity; while sexual orientation is about to whom the young person is sexually attracted. Therefore, it is perfectly reasonable for different transgender teenagers to claim any gender because they are still evolving in their non-binary gender (Brill & Kenny, 2016, p. 171). Third, transgender teenagers often experience various forms of discomfort. Understanding discomfort will be a great asset to their overall emotional health and spiritual wellbeing. Every trans adolescent figures out differently and comes out in their own way and in their own time. Coming out is a transition period; the time that a young person decides to disclose her/his sexual orientation and/or gender identity (Huegel, 2011, p. 201). Coming out is part of the transgender maturation process and a positive step in cultivating personal growth, gaining self-esteem, and becoming self-actualized. When trans youth do come out, sometimes there are specific areas of discomfort or a more global sense of unrest. Transgender teenagers may experience a variety of discomforts: gender role discomfort (feeling like their assumed gender is not a good fit for their gender identity and their gender presentation); gender expression discomfort (feeling awkward or strange in traditional gender conforming clothes); body/self-image discomfort (feeling of discomfort with their body beyond the usual adolescent feelings); gender identity discomfort (uncomfortable with the terms cisgender and transgender); pronoun discomfort (feeling that pronouns make a difference; some youth are more comfortable using one pronoun over another to describe themselves); and name discomfort (feelings of dissatisfaction with their baptismal/given name) (Brill & Kenny, 2016, pp. 175-184). One teen explains her gender role discomfort: I am suffocating by the expectations everyone has for me. It seems like every sentence begins with Girls arent supposed to... But Ill never be a girl in the way they want me to be (Brill & Kenny, 2016, p. 179). This youths statement calls for parents and pastoral workers to be attuned and sensitive to the young persons issues, but also to recognize that not every trans persons issues are the same. Prudent parents and pastoral workers will be 254 ready to provide practical guidance for their transgender teenagers. Practical guidance may come in the form of listening, asking probing questions, and offering compassion and empathy. Fourth, support comprises inviting parents and families of trans youth into the church. This process is more akin to inviting-in as distinct from a coming-out event. Pastorally, trans youth need help with the inviting-in process; it requires young people to muster-up a great deal of honesty and courage, which may need facilitation from a trusted adult. During the inviting-in process, transgender teenagers should experience Gods engagement and love through a non-judgmental Christian community. Sanders states, The most vital thing to remember in the process of working with the families of [trans] youth is this: in the process of inviting family in, the [trans] youth are always the hostsdeciding who to invite in, and when, how quickly, and with what levels of access to the sacred spaces of their hearts and souls. (Sanders, 2017, p. 67) This process allows for questions to arise, misconceptions to be heard, and feelings to be shared in a safe environment. The inviting-in method also allows for six supportive scenarios for churches to help trans youth and their families: (a) coping with initial family rejection; (b) addressing conflict between parents and among families; (c) helping shift family narratives from negative to positive; (d) providing hurting youth with family support; (e) creating supportive communities for parents and families; and (f) inviting new family members into the process (Sanders, 2017, pp. 69-79). The inviting-in method is one of dialogue and support that allows for family narratives to find meaning and to work through any disappointment, bitterness, and shame, but it also creates a safe space for the trans adolescent to be heard and feel invited. Sometimes this coming-out/inviting-in process is affectionately called coming home. Coming home refers to an experience of the transgender teenager fully embracing her/his identity: it is a coming home to themselves; a coming home to their family, perhaps for the very first time; and a coming-home to God too. When done successfully, most transgender young people state that coming out is more akin to a coming-home partya fiesta of choice food and drinks and friends and family gathered around enjoying themselves. One young person noted, My coming out was more a coming home to God: You made me this way, you love me this way. I am lovable. And I will find love in my life (Graham, 2009, p. I 15). Support for transgender teenagers comes in different forms and it is important for parents and pastoral ministers to be ready and willing to help and support these young people with their unique life and identity situations. Beyond offering practical guidance, parents and pastoral workers Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling 72(4) can move the needle even farther by advocating for transgender teenagers; this for most congregations, is the hardest hurdle to overcome. Advocacy There are many forms of advocacy that Christian parents, ministers, and pastors can employ for transgender teenagers. A few rudimentary forms of advocacy that will be easy to implement for Christian parents and congregations are providing role models, mentoring, and social activism. All three of these forms of advocacy are part of a larger matrix of Christian social justice. Adult role models. The importance of adult role models for transgender teenagers cannot be over-stated. Baptist practical theologian Amy Jacober notes that adult role models help teenagers to shape their worldview and remove the social disconnect between adults and adolescents (jacober, 2011, pp. 88-89). Finding a role model for trans youth should not be a problem; role models come in all shapes and sizes, from all walks of life, and from various Christian denominations. Adult role models can be a powerful ally for young people. Ideally, a trans youth would be with a trans adult role model. Being a role model is a relatively easy venture because it may be a private activity that occurs within ones own families and/or in a persons local communities (Riggle & Rostosky, 2013, p. I 13). Many transgender teenagers would be wise to seek role models from their own extended families: aunts, uncles, and cousins who can be a little more impartial than their own parents (Riggle & Rostosky, 201 3, p. II3). Trans youth can also find adult role models in the larger community as well, such as coaches, teachers, and other working professionals they might know. There is nothing ethically wrong with a trans youth experiencing cisgender role models, but there might be more in common with and to learn from a trans role model; however, it would be best if the role model was also trans. The ultimate purpose of finding a good role model for transgender teenagers is so that they can begin to adopt some of their insights, habits, and life practices. Mentoring. Distinct from role models is mentoring. Mentoring is typically entering into a more formal process between two people. Mentoring is an active process of cultivation and supervision of the personal growth and development of someone else. According to gender diversity scholar Ellen D. B. Riggle and psychologist Sharon S. Rotosky, Perhaps one of the biggest needs in the community is mentoring for [Transgender] adolescents and young adults as they come-out and transition into their adult lives (Riggle & Rostosky, 2013, p. III). Transgender teenagers, like all adolescents, would benefit greatly from adult mentors, those inside and outside the trans community. Some of the common elements for being a good mentor 255 Canales for transgender teenagers are: (a) be open to becoming a trans ally; (b) be available to meet regularly; (c) be a good listener; (d) be able to engage in meaningful conversations; and (e) be empathetic and compassionate (Brill & Kenny, 2016, pp. 162-165). Mentoring transgender teenagers also involves affecdonate orientation towards young people. Presbyterian pastoral theologian Carrie Doehring maintains that hearing a youths personal narrative is an essential part of mentoring and pastoral care. Stories allow [youth] to lament with each otherexpress anger and question all they know about lifewithout imposing meanings prematurely.... When pastoral care is experienced as narrative it becomes more relational and communal. (Doehring, 2015, p. xv) Part of mentoring is listening intently to stories, which helps trans youth to ask about meaning-making of their lives, introspection about their gender identity, and understanding preferences and hopes for their future. Sanders states that there are four essential areas that heterosexual and cisgender ministers and pastoral care givers may want to provide to transgender teenagers in mentoring relationships: (a) asking inviting and personal questions to young people, even if you might be uncomfortable with the answers; (b) inviting personal stories from young people so they can share their journey, hopes, and fears; (c) talking openly about sex and sexuality with a nonjudgmental attitude; and (d) helping young people reflect theologically on their experiences of being trans (Sanders, 2017, pp. 86-91). As a trans ally and mentor, I have a three-prong area of focus with my mentees: (a) pastoral counseling; (b) spiritual direction; and (c) vocational guidance. This three-prong approach allows me to work through their personal and familiar issues, discuss their faith life or spiritual life, and help them to discern the direction of their career and vocation. All of the above mentoring techniques will help an adult mentor to become a better and more affective mentor with the transgender teenage mentee. Social activism. The third level of advocacy is social activism. This can be a scary term for some Christians, but it need not be, and activism has lots of leeway. Catholic moral theologians Jozef D. Zalot and Benedict Guevin note that, social activism is part of social justice work, which seeks fair and equal treatment of all human beings in important social, economic, political, and sexual issues (Zalot & Guevin, 2011, p. 47). Social justice is the cherished principle that finds its footing in the bedrock of sacred Scripture and Christian doctrines (Zalot & Guevin, 2011, pp. 48-51). Social activism towards transgender teenagers begins with treating trans youth with dignity, respect, empathy, and compassion, from both adolescents and adults alike, because transgender teenagers are created as imago Del. In the transgender community, social activism may be simply attending a transgender-awareness meeting or being part of a local conversation that sparks local grassroots efforts. Or, social activism could do something larger that advocates for transgender rights and moves community, state, and federal legislation and becomes a catalyst to support large-scale social change. For example, transgender and non-binary teenagers not being able to use public bathrooms in their schools or businesses. Transgender and non-binary teenagers, who do not identify fully as either male or female, do not feel comfortable using either the womens or the mens restrooms, and might feel unsafe, because others may verbally harass them or even physically attack them (National Center for Transgender Equality, 2016). Transgender and non-binary teenagers should be able to use public restrooms that they feel the safest and most comfortable using. Whether it is being a role model, mentor, or social activist, transgender teenagers will probably need all three forms of support. Whichever form of advocacy one chooses to be a part of, doing something is the most important part of advocacy. As one Tennessee transgender male notes, I have learned to fight for right instead of just being a victim (Riggle & Rostosky, 2013, p. 123). Christian congregations are acting, hospitable, affirming, and prophetic when they choose advocacy for transgender teenagers. Providing competent and proficient pastoral care, support, and advocacy to transgender teenagers will also require development of appropriate pastoral strategies for Christian youth workers to employ. Conclusion Transgender teenage issues are complex. Nevertheless, transgender youth are found in nearly every Christian community, even though it might not be evident. Christian congregations are called to work towards inclusiveness. This article has given parents, pastors, and youth ministers a few tools to work toward that inclusiveness and to further enhance their ministries with transgender teenagers by examining three areas: pastoral care; support; and advocacy. It is time that Christian denominations begin to reflect on the ways to help transgender teenagers. Parents espedally, but also pastors, directors of Christian education programs, youth ministers, coaches, and all people of good will who work with adolescents have a tremendous responsibility to ensure that this generation of transgender teenagers stops becoming targets of oppression and condemnation and start to be understood and seen as authentic individuals whose non-conforming gender can be respected and admired. I pray that our Christian churches can begin to minister more openly and effectively to all transgender people, but especially trans youth. 256 Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Notes 1. Megan K. DeFranzadoesagreatjobofaddressingtheprincipleof imago Dei from various Christian perspectives in her book Sex difference in Christian theology: Male, female, and intersex in the image of God (2015, Grand Rapids, Ml: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company). For DeFranza imago Dei needs to be liberated from a normal, two-sex, binary model of gender identity (DeFranza, 2015, p. 23) as well from a White, middle-class, evangelical, Roman Catholic, heterosexual, virgin-until-married, cisgender, female and male for doing theology (DeFranza, 2015, p. xv). 2. Cisgender is a term used today to distinguish from transgender and to signify that a persons psychological and emotional experience of gender identity is congruent with their biological sex (Yarhouse, 2015, p. 20). Therefore, it is not uncommon to hear someone from the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) community state I am a female, bi, who is cisgender or an LGBTQ-ally or advocate say, I am a male, straight, and cisgender. 3. There are several resources which parents can avail themselves of to help the process of adjusting to their transgender teenagers gender identity. Moreover, these sources can also help to alleviate some of the common instinctive reactions that parents might experience. Here are a few of my favorites: (a) Stephanie Brill and Lisa Kenny. (2016). The transgender teen: A handbook for parents and professionals supporting transgender and non-binary teens. Jersey City, NJ: Cleis Press. This is a great resource and it is totally focused on helping parents understand transgender complexities and to help their teenage son or daughter with their gender identity. (b) Ellen D. B. Riggle and Sharon S. Rostosky. (2013). A positive view of LGBTQ: Embracing identity and cultivating well-being. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. This book is written with emerging adults and young adults in mind who are looking inward, and are reflecting on themselves; however, the book is a good resource for parents and pastors as well. (c) Kelly Huegel (201 I). GLBTQ: The survival guide for gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning teens. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. This is a good book for teenagers to help them understand their struggles with sexual and gender identity, but equally good for parents to read from a young persons perspective. References Brill, S., & Kenny, L. (2016). The transgender teen: A handbook for parents and professionals supporting transgender and non-binary teens. Jersey City, NJ: Cleis Press. Canales, A. D., & Sherman, M. (2016). Franciscan campus ministers and LGBTQ emerging adults: Providing moral guidance and a pastoral plan. Journal of the Association of Franciscan Colleges and Universities, 13(I), 36-52. DeFranza, M. K. (2015). Sex difference in Christian theology: Male, female, and intersex in the image of God. Grand Rapids, Ml: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling 72(4) Doehring, C. (2015). The practice of pastoral care: A postmodern approach. Revised and expanded. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Graham, L. K. (2009). The role of straight allies in the pastoral care of lesbians and gays. In De La Torre M. A. (Ed.), Out of the shadows into the light: Christianity and homosexuality. (pp. 104-120). St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. Grossman, A. H., & DAugelli, A. R. (2006). Transgender youth: Invisible and vulnerable. Journal of Homosexuality, 5/(1), I I 1-128. Huegel, K. (201 I). GLBTQ: The survival guide for gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning teens. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. Jacober, A. E. (201 I). The adolescent journey: An interdisciplinary approach. Downers Grove, IL: IBP Books. Kundtz, D. J., & Schlager, B. S. (2007). Ministry among Gods queer folk. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press. National Center for Transgender Equality. (2016). Transgender People and Bathroom Access. July 10, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.transequality.org/issues/resources/transgenderpeople-and-bath room-access. Oraker, J. R., & Hahn, J. (2009). The church in action asking hard questions. In De La Torre M. A. (Ed.), Out of the shadows into the light Christianity and homosexuality, (pp. 121-135). St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press. Riggle, E. D. B., & Rostosky, S. S. (2013). A positive view of LGBTQ: Embracing identity and cultivating well-being. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Sanders, C. J. (2016). LGBTQ pastoral counseling: Setting a new scholarly agenda. Sacred Spaces: The E-Journal of the American Association of Pastoral Counselors, 8(1), 1-5. Sanders, C. J. (2017). A brief guide to ministry with LGBTQIA youth. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Tanis, J. E. (2003). Trans-gendered: Theology, ministry, and communities of faith. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press. Tutu, D. (1991). South Africas blacks: Aliens in their own land. In Howell L., & Lindermayer V. (Eds.), Ethics in the present tense: Readings from Christianity and crisis, 1966-1991. (pp. I 19-135). New York, NY: Friendship Press. Yarhouse, M. A. (2015). Understanding gender dysphoria: Navigating transgender issues in a changing culture. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. Zalot, J. D., & Guevin, B. (201 I). Catholic ethics in todays world. Winona, MN: Anselm Academic. Arthur David Canales is an associate professor of Pastoral Theology & Ministry. He is considered one of the foremost Catholic adolescent ministry scholars and educators in the United States. He has written approximately 40 pastoral and catechetical essays for various magazines and newspapers. He has written over 30 scholarly, peer-reviewed articles. He has authored four books including Models & Methods for Youth & Young Adult Ministry (Cascade, 2018). He is currently writing a book on Pastoral Care to and Ministry with LGBTQ Youth & Young Adults. He is a member of several professional organizations including American Association of Pastoral Counselors. License and Permissible Use Notice These materials are provided to you by the American Theological Library Association (ATLA) in accordance with the terms of ATLA's agreements with the copyright holder or authorized distributor of the materials, as applicable. In some cases, ATLA may be the copyright holder of these materials. You may download, print, and share these materials for your individual use as may be permitted by the applicable agreements among the copyright holder, distributors, licensors, licensees, and users of these materials (including, for example, any agreements entered into by the institution or other organization from which you obtained these materials) and in accordance with the fair use principles of United States and international copyright and other applicable laws. 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... religions Article Models and Methods for Confirmation Catechesis in Catholic Youth Ministry Arthur D. Canales Department of Theology, Marian University, Indianapolis, IN 46222, USA; acanales@marian.edu Received: 10 July 2020; Accepted: 11 August 2020; Published: 13 August 2020



 Abstract: This article will briefly address the origins of confirmation and the current approaches to adolescent confirmation. Moreover, the article discusses the two predominant models of confirmation in the Catholic Church in the United States and the predominant methods for adolescent confirmation in Catholic parishes and in youth ministry settings. Finally, the article delineates three proposed methods for confirmation catechesis in Catholic youth ministry. The hope is that these three methods will help Catholic youth ministers and/or confirmation coordinators in their important work of providing confirmation catechesis with teenagers. Keywords: Sacrament of Confirmation; confirmation catechesis; adolescent catechesis; youth ministry; methods of catechesis; models of confirmation; teenagers and confirmation Youth catechesis must be profoundly revised and revitalized. General Directory for Catechesis, No. 1811 1. Introduction The Sacrament of Confirmation2 has had an inconsistent history in Catholicism. Much ink has been spilled on various aspects of confirmation over the past three decades: the proper age to confirm people, the two prominent schools of thoughtconfirmation as commitment and confirmation as initiationand role of confirmation catechesis or confirmation classes. I have opinions on all of these topics, but it is confirmation catechesis which strikes the deepest cord of concern with me, in particular, the ways Catholic parishes in the United States accomplish catechesis with prospective confirmation candidates in youth ministry. This article will examine the models and methods for catechetical instruction in Catholic confirmation programs. First, the article will briefly look at the origins and history of the Sacrament of Confirmation. Second, the article will discuss the current approach to confirmation and catechesis for confirmation in general. Third, this article will examine the two primary models for confirmation catechesis, and then explain the three catechetical methodologies to be implemented with either middle school or high school adolescents as one program offered within the parishs overall comprehensive youth ministry. Moreover, the article provides a list of the strengths and limitations of the three methodologies considered. Finally, this article incorporates both a prescriptive and descriptive analysis throughout. The majority of the article is prescriptive offering the history, theology, and ecclesial understanding regarding the Sacrament of Confirmation. The article also employs descriptive investigation in the 1 2 Congregation for Clergy, 1977, 181. Throughout this article, the phrase Sacrament of Confirmation will be capitalized, but the term confirmation will not be capitalized unless the word confirmation begins a sentence. Religions 2020, 11, 417; doi:10.3390/rel11080417 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2020, 11, 417 2 of 13 final section providing three catechetical pastoral strategies and pedagogical tactics for implementation in a youth ministry settings. 2. The Origins of Confirmation The origins of confirmation begin in Judaism. Water and the Spirit have always been part of the development of Christian baptism and the New Testament attributes this with Jesus being baptized by John the Baptist in the Jordan River (Mark 1:911; Luke 3:2122). Jesus baptism sets the stage for the way Christian initiation is understood, namely a water bath, the sending of the Holy Spirit, and religious conversion. The relationship between water and the Holy Spirit can be seen again in the Nicodemus Narrative (John 3:38). This interdependent relationship is significant for understanding the Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation. Sacramental theologian Gerard Austin states, The tradition is clear. Water is subordinated to Spirit, not vice versa. Unfortunately, in the historical development of the initiation sacraments [baptism, confirmation, Eucharist] there has been at times a subordination of Spirit to water, and this has caused an overemphasis on the water-bath, cutting it off from its other ritual components such as anointings and laying on of hands.3 This water and Spirit connection is part of the reality of regeneration. Baptism is a process that confers the Holy Spirit at baptism and governs both regeneration and renewal. It is through chrismation or the smearing of oil and the sealing of the Holy Spirit at confirmation that ones life is set on fire for God.4 3. The Early Developments of Confirmation The term seal (sphragis in Greek) was used in the early centuries of Christianity, and it is generally understood to mean confirmation today. As early as 200CE Tertullian of Carthage (155240CE) writes in his De Baptismo that baptism is divided into two parts: the water-bath ritual and the anointing ceremony, which included the imposition of hands.5 Moreover, around 215CE, Hippolytus of Rome (170235CE) writes in the Apostolic Tradition that priests are to administer a post-baptismal anointing and a signing on the forehead (sealing) of the newly baptized.6 The early developments of this post-baptismal anointing were seen as a sealing of the Holy Spirit upon the neophyte. Therefore, in the early church, the bishop or priest baptized, confirmed, and eucharistized all in one religious ritual, thus celebrating all the sacraments of initiation together. It was not until the fifth-century that the history of confirmation takes a major shift in pastoral practice and theological understanding. The Bishop of Riezin Southern France, Faustus of Riez (410490)preached on Pentecost Sunday in 458 that leads to the separation of the sacraments of initiation. Faustus theologizes about the importance of confirmation after baptism. He states that Christians are strengthened through confirmation, liking it to battle for struggling faith and spiritually.7 Faustus maintains that Confirmation stresses human effort and involvement, whereas baptism is passively received.8 This was really the first instance of developing a theology of confirmation. Faustus words had a great impact upon the medieval church. Eventually, it even makes its way into The False Decretals,9 who names Pope Melchiades, an early fourth-century pope, who in fact never 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (Austin 1990, p. 19). (Canales 2002, pp. 107, 111). (Austin 1985, p. 11). (Austin 1985, p. 11). (Austin 1985, p. 14). (Kavanagh 1988, p. 67). A ninth-century collection of ecclesiastical documents, compiled by Pseudo-Isidore, probably Isidore of Sevilla (560636) or unknown Carolingian-era theologians. Religions 2020, 11, 417 3 of 13 existed, as the source of the battle motif for confirmation.10 Unfortunately, this theological error in sacramental understanding was never corrected and it led to several prominent theologians passing on this obfuscating of confirmation: Gratians Decretum, Peter Lombards Sentences, and Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologiae.11 4. Confirmation Today Since 1910, with Pope Pius Xs (18351914) papal decree Quam Singulari or So Extraordinary is the Love of Christ, on the reception of First Holy Communion was lowered to the age of seven from teenage years. The rationale for the move was that children should receive their first communion at an earlier age to encounter Gods mercy and experience Christs love more fully at a younger age. Conversely, in doing so, the decree created havoc in the United States because it unleashed pastoral and catechetical dilemmas for confirmation because it was not lowered and celebrated before first communion.12 The catechetical structure and methodology changed forever, and it has caused the separation of the proper sequence for celebrating the Sacraments of Initiation. For the past 30-years, many liturgical scholars and sacramental practitioners have been calling for confirmation to have its own Quam Singulari, but to no avail.13 It has been stated by liturgical scholars and religious educators alike that confirmation is a sacrament in search of a theology rather emphatically14 . This means that confirmation has had a difficult history and cannot seem to develop a theology on its own or apart from baptism. The initial 1978 catechetical document National Catechetical Directory for Catholics of the United States gives confirmation some theology: Confirmation renews and strengthens the Christians baptismal call to bear witness to Christ before the world and work eagerly for the building up of his body. Confirmation emphasizes the transformation of life by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in [her] fullness.15 Therefore, the theology of confirmation is still very much imbued with the Holy Spirit and connected with baptism, and thus the lament for the restored order. Confirmation today is celebrated as a separate sacrament of initiation as previously addressed. Liturgical historian Katharine E. Harmon addresses the so-called restored order regarding confirmation within the sacraments of initiation, which puts confirmation in its proper liturgical sequence after baptism and before Eucharist. Harmon states, Thus far, thirteen dioceses in the United States have implemented the Restored Order for the Sacraments of Initiation.16 Therefore, 13 or 6% of Catholic dioceses out of approximately 190 Catholic dioceses offer the restored order of initiation, which confirms children at the same ritual ceremony as first communion or at a separate religious ritual that takes place before first communion. At any rate, confirmation today still needs a more specific theology. As a religious ceremony, it is a separate sacrament for adolescents in ninety-four percent (94%) of the Catholic dioceses in the United States. In those ninety-four percent, the current approach to adolescent confirmation is stream-lined and functionally similar to each other. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 (Davenport 1916, pp. 9297). (Austin 1985, pp. 1415). (Gaupin 1989, p. 85). (Gaupin 1989, p. 92). Van Slyke uses this phrase as the title of the article and numerous other authors have used this phrase in their work on describing confirmation (Van Slyke 2011). USCCB. National Catechetical Directory. (USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 1978, 118). (Harmon 2019, p. 4). She lists the dioceses, Saginaw, Michigan (1995); Great Falls-Billings, Montana (1996); Portland, Maine (1997); Spokane, Washington (1998); Fargo, North Dakota (2002); Gaylord, Michigan (2003); Tyler, Texas (2005); Phoenix, Arizona (2005); Honolulu, Hawaii (2015); Denver, Colorado (2015); Manchester, New Hampshire (2017); Springfield, Illinois (2017); and Gallup, New Mexico (2019). Religions 2020, 11, 417 4 of 13 5. The Current Approach to Adolescent Confirmation There are three main canons regarding Those to be Confirmed for the Sacrament of Confirmation in the 1983 Code of Canon Law. Canon 891 deals directly with the proper age for celebrating confirmation: The Sacrament of Confirmation is to be conferred on the faithful at [or] about the age of discretion unless the conference of bishops determines another age or there is danger of death or in the judgment of the minister a grave cause urges otherwise.17 Hence, the proper age to celebrate confirmation is the age of seven and older. The American Bishops have stated in the 1971 Rite of Confirmation: The administration of confirmation is generally delayed until the seventh year.18 Moreover, the U.S. Bishops maintain that each diocesan bishop has the right and privilege to set a later age as normative in his jurisdiction.19 Confirmation scholar Paul Turner notes that this has opened up the practice of confirming tweens and early adolescents (1013 years) and teenagers (1417 years), but there is still no uniform practice; therefore, individual dioceses celebrate confirmation anywhere from 7 to 17 years of age.20 Nevertheless, the typical catechetical approach to confirmation in the United States is to confirm adolescents somewhere between the ages of 1317 years old and who are in the 8th through 12th grades. There are of course exceptions, but this article only addresses todays normative approach to confirming adolescents. The duties for adolescent confirmation usually fall on youth ministers, confirmation coordinator, or designated person to facilitate sacramental catechesis who is under the auspices of the parish youth minister. The major catechetical duties for confirmation, despite whom it falls upon, concerns youth understanding their commitment to the Church, Christian maturity, and witnessing to a faith life in Jesus the Christ. Catechetical scholar Kieran Sawyer maintains that there are eight principles for confirmation with teenagers, also known as delayed confirmation, and supports the current model of celebrating the Sacrament of Confirmation with adolescents. Sawyers eight principles are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The Process Principle: [Confirmation] is the process by which a person comes to mature faith within the community of Christians; The Ritual Principle: There is an intrinsic coherence between the [confirmation] and the initiation process. The Freedom Principle: The Sacrament of [Confirmation] must be received freely. The Faith Principle: The goal of [confirmation] is mature faith. The Readiness Principle: The fruitful celebration of [confirmation] rituals requires readiness on the part of the participants. The Community Principle: [Confirmation] is the responsibility of the entire Christian community (parish). The Eucharistic Principle: The culmination of the initiation process [baptism and confirmation] is the Eucharist. The Catechesis Principle: Catechesis for [confirmation] takes place before, during, and after the celebration of sacramental rituals.21 Sawyer goes into detail about each principle, but that is not the scope of this article. It seems apparent that all of these principles that support celebrating confirmation as a teenager can be integrated into various parish youth ministry settings. 17 18 19 20 21 Pope John Paul II. Code of Canon Law. (Pope John Paul II 1983, 891). Bouley. Rite of Confirmation. (Bouley 1992b, 11). (Bishops Committee on the Liturgy 1972, pp. 32627). (Turner 2006, p. 100). (Sawyer 1992, pp. 2636). Sawyer goes into detail about each principle, but that is not the scope of this essay. Religions 2020, 11, 417 5 of 13 6. Catechesis for Confirmation There are various opinions regarding confirmation catechesis with young people. The Catechesis of the Catholic Church clearly states that At the heart of catechesis we find, in essence, a Person, the Person of Jesus of Nazareth, the only Son of the Father.22 Therefore, quality confirmation catechesis with young people is encouraged to help them encounter Jesus who is the Christ. In the ecclesial document Renewing the Vision: A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry, it generally maintains that all catechesis with youth is acceptable catechesis for confirmation.23 RTV states, The ministry of catechesis fosters growth in Catholic faith in all three [human] dimensions: trusting (heart), knowing and believing (mind), and doing (will).24 These dimensions are aspects that Catholic youth ministers and confirmation coordinators would be wise to cultivate within confirmation catechesis. Paul Turner states, Catechetical formation preparing adolescents to commit their lives to the [Catholic] Church in confirmation is similar to catechetical formation preparing adults to commit their lives to the Church in baptism, but the goal for adolescents is to persevere in Christian life.25 Therefore, confirmation catechesis with teenagers is comparable to that of adults being newly baptized in the Catholic faith. The concentration on confirmation catechesis with teenagers is on the faith of the young person and on the role of the newly confirmed will assume in the parish community. The more normative model of confirmation for adolescents adopts certain principles but changes their goal. These principles are expressed in the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults in the Period of the Catechumenate and are as follows: (1) suitable catechesis is necessary to acquaint catechumens with the teachings of the Church; (2) appropriate introduction to the Christian way of life and discipleship; (3) reasonable liturgical rites are to be celebrated with Sunday gathered assembly present to monitor ones spiritual journey; and (4) suitable sharing of the Gospel by the catechumens to edify and exhort others.26 These four principles are used by Catholic parishes for adults who need to be confirmed into the Catholic Church and they are flexible enough to be used with teenagers as well.27 The ecclesial document The Challenge of Adolescent Catechesis notes that catechesis with youth for confirmation is an opportunity to foster the faith life in adolescents. The document states, Realizing that sacramental preparation for confirmation has a distinct catechesis with its own focus and elements.28 The exact foci and elements of confirmation catechesis seem to be an issue in Catholic parishes as well. What should young Catholics be learning in confirmation catechetical formation? Confirmation catechesis supports the young Christian to become more aware of her/his faith life in Christ. In the ecclesial document The Joy of Adolescent Catechesis, it plainly states, Confirmation preparation should be one experience among a number of opportunities for teenagers to grow in their Catholic faith and to learn [the things] to be disciples of Jesus Christ.29 It would seem that any catechesis on the Bible, discipleship, Jesus, faith, morality, and spirituality would be sufficient for confirmation; however, discipleship is paramount. Confirmation expert Michael Carotta maintains that the faith-formation process for confirmation with teenagers is about helping young people to live a life in the Holy Spirit.30 Therefore, it is pastorally prudent to do some catechesis on the role and theology of the Holy Spirit and on the Rite of Confirmation. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Pope John Paul II. Catechesism of the Catholic Church. (Pope John Paul II 1997, 426). USCCB, Renewing the Vision. (USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 1997, pp. 2829) RTV, 29. (Turner 2006, p. 110). Bouley. Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults. (Bouley 1992a, 75). As one parish youth minister in Louisville, Kentucky, told me, I wish some parishes would blend of the information. Some parishes spend so much time on information about the Sacrament of Confirmation and they totally miss teaching youth to be disciples and the ways to get involved in the life of the Church. Delgatto, NFCYM. The Challenge of Adolescent Catechesis. (National Federation for Catholic Youth Ministry 2005, p. 86). NIAC. Joy of Adolescent Catechesis. (National Initiative on Adolescent Catechesis and National Federation for Catholic Youth Ministry 2017, p. 33). Carotta (2011, 2017). Both of Carottas texts help the confirmation candidate and the confirmation sponsor. Religions 2020, 11, 417 6 of 13 The newer 2005 catechetical document, the National Directory for Catechesis maintains that there are common themes that all confirmation catechesis would be wise to cover: a. b. c. d. e. f. The theology of confirmation, Elements within The Rite of Confirmation itself, Various traditional prayers within Catholicism, Scripture passages from the Bible pertaining to the Holy Spirit, The symbols and rituals used within confirmation, and Acts of Christian service.31 Of course, the themes might differ depending on the method selected and the best needs of the confirmation program, recognizing that it can be incredibly frustrating for a youth minister to have to do remedial religious education with some teenagers because they get little or no religious instruction at home, but that is the job sometimes. 7. Two Models for Confirmation Today, there are two major models or schools of thought regarding the Sacrament of Confirmation: (1) the liturgical school and (2) the religious education school.32 The liturgical model correctly maintains that confirmation must be seen as an extension of and an integral part of baptism. Moreover, the Sacraments of Initiation were never intended to be separated from their proper liturgical and historical sequence.33 Furthermore, confirmation has never been theologically on par with baptism and has never been described as necessary for salvation as baptism.34 Finally, when confirmation is celebrated after First Eucharist, the proper sequence of initiation is disrupted and there is a disintegration or degeneration of the initiation process, and it appears that confirmation, rather than Eucharist, completes the Sacraments of Initiation.35 For the four reasons listed above, the liturgical school model is preferable; however, due to Quam Singulari previously mentioned, this model does not mesh with contemporary confirmation catechetical practice. The religious education modelmore of a paradigm now than a modelpreserves that confirmation is best served when adolescents are more mature to understand the meaning of the sacrament they are pursuing. Moreover, confirmation with teenagers springs from a pastoral fear or nearsightedness, namely, those youth who practice their faith either has lessened or are imperiled.36 This is a legitimate concern for parents, youth ministers, and pastors who desperately desire that confirmation not be a rite of initiation out of, rather than into, the Catholic faith.37 It is a graduation mentality. Furthermore, this practice tends to have youth and parents think that confirmation is a kind of sacrament of Christian maturity or readiness or a Christian rite of passage, and the problem with this mentality is that it may oversimplify the significance of baptism and Eucharist.38 Finally, and ideally, the premise of adolescent confirmation is the belief that sacraments in general, and confirmation in particular, ought to relate to ones real-life experiences.39 There has been a shift in the past few decades to understand teenage confirmation, and the change has come about in catechetical theory, which maintains that spiritual growth begins with probing the ways that God acts in a young persons life.40 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 USCCB. National Directory for Catechesis. (USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 2005, pp. 199200). For more on the two models or schools of thought on confirmation see these sources in the bibliography by Paul Turner, Arthur J. Kubick, and James A. Wilde. (Smolarski 1996, p. 55). (Osborne 1987, p. 116). (Huels 1988, p. 12). (Turner 2006, p. 98). (Smolarski 1996, p. 56). (Sawyer 1992, pp. 3031). (Turner 2006, p. 97). (Turner 2006, p. 101). Religions 2020, 11, 417 7 of 13 Therefore, religious experiences and theological reflection become the formational components of adolescent confirmation. These two divided models sometimes over-simplify the pastoral and practical dynamics of celebrating the Sacrament of Confirmation. Both models have theological and historical implications as well as pastoral ramifications that merit attention; however, not in this article. The remainder of this article will concentrate on the widespread practice of teenage confirmation as practiced by the majority of Catholic parishes in the United States. 8. Methods for Confirmation According to American practical theologian Andrew Root, Method, by definition, seeks not reality, but rather takes reasoned steps to reduce reality, so that it might say something particular.41 In the case of this article, the methodology seeks to help the youth minister and/or confirmation coordinator see something practical, pastoral, and pedagogical, and in ways which methods can be implemented and utilized. The current method for confirmation in the majority of Catholic congregations is to have the parish youth minister be the main instructor of confirmation catechesis or to have a designated person such as a trusted adult who has worked with teenagers and who enjoys teaching about the sacraments, or in some cases, a parish deacon. Typically, catechesis for adolescent confirmation happens over the course of one academic year; however, some more and more parishes are implementing a two-year model, which seems a bit too long and a bit of a misnomer as well.42 Giving an adolescent more time to learn or giving the youth minister more time to teach does not necessarily translate into the teen soaking anything in, thus it does not fix the problem. Longer catechetical programs for confirmation typically is a Band-Aid solution to a much larger wound. From my experience of being involved in Catholic youth ministry for over 30 years and a result of the informal data collected, the two-year approach does not achieve any more success than the one-year method. The parishes that pride themselves on a two-year model, usually force teenagers to be part of the high school youth ministry for their second year, which typically does not keep teenagers in the church. Thus, the same old problem exists: the mentality and misperception that parents and teenagers have regarding confirmation being graduation from the workings of the church instead of another initiation rite into the ministries and life of the church. The one-year method for confirmation does not seem to be working either, despite the widespread use of this method across the United States for the past sixty-plus years.43 The problem still exists of spiritually, non-engaged teenagers getting confirmed and still viewing confirmation as a rite of passage out of the church. The practical implications for teenagers not wanting to get confirmed or being less than enthusiastic about desiring to be confirmed are many. On a practical level, Catholic parishes would be wise to start talking about celebrating confirmation early in a childs life. It is not pastorally ideal for a teenager to be hearing about confirmation in the same year she/he is going to be confirmed. Pastors and youth ministers would be wise to offer discipleship programs and processes for confirmation catechesis. There needs to be less indoctrination of the faith and more time and energy spent on spiritual enrichment, accompaniment, and mentorship. The difference is in building personal relationships with community and with Jesus the Christ. Some pragmatic reasons that older adolescents do not enjoy the one-year methodology (and especially the two-year method): older teenagers drive and spend more time away from home 41 42 43 (Root 2016, p. 48). Canales, Informal Data. This information comes from antidotal informal data gathered from over 150 Catholic youth ministers from across the United States via in-person conversations, e-mail exchanges, and Facebook posts. The question that was posed: Does your parish use a one-year or two-year process for confirmation? Because of that initial question sponged other conversations with Catholic youth ministers. (Data collection and informal interviews conducted from May 2020 through July 2020, via electronic mail, FaceBook, and one-on-one discussions with over 150 Catholic youth ministers). (Kubick 1992, pp. 7381; Neu 1992, pp. 8295; Viramontes-Gutierrez 1992, pp. 96106). Religions 2020, 11, 417 8 of 13 and family, older adolescents are usually dating someone specifically or dating in general, older youth might be more engaged in athletics or extra-curricular activities, investigating and examining their college options, and older juveniles are more likely to have jobs. Therefore, older youth are busier than younger adolescents and are more likely to not want to be involved in a long-term confirmation process. Finally, the one-year method usually spans most of the academic year until the celebration of the Sacrament of Confirmation, which typically takes place in the spring. Therefore, if a parish or group of parishes is getting confirmed on 15 May, then the confirmation catechesis begins sometime after 1 September. Thus, it spans eight or nine months of the year, which is programmatically and pedagogically too long for confirmation catechesis. For example, a parish will usually set aside one-evening of the week for an hour or 90-minutes to designate confirmation formation. The weekly time commitment is not too demanding; however, the span of time over the academic year is too long and arduous for the majority of teenagers and their parents. Confirmation catechesis should not take a year but only a few months at the most. The next section will provide three pastoral tactics and pedagogical strategies for implementing three confirmation catechetical methods.44 9. Three Specific Methods for Confirmation Catechesis with Adolescents All three of the methods fall under the auspice of the religious education model of confirmation, which typically celebrates the Sacrament of Confirmation in the teenage years of high school. There are three methods of confirmation catechesis that youth ministers who have confirmation preparation under their ministry purview. The three methods are: (1) the once-a-week evening meeting, (2) the three-day weekend retreat, and (3) the one-week vacation confirmation school. Again, the focus with each of these catechetical methods is on personal discipleship and experience: spiritual enrichment, accompaniment, and mentorship. Method One: The Once-a-Week Evening Meeting. This method maintains a more traditional view of catechetical confirmation formation with teenagers, except for the overall time commitment. This method calls for teenagers to gather and meet over the course of 12 weeks for 90 min, either in the fall semester or in the winter semester. Therefore, confirmation catechesis only lasts 12 weeks. Below is an example of the suggested curriculum within this method on a week-to-week basis. 44 45 Week One: What is Confirmation? What is Christian Discipleship? Week Two: The role and theology of the Holy Spirit. Week Three: Scripture study on the Gifts of the Spirit (Isaiah 11:23). Week Four: Scripture study on Fruits of the Holy Spirit (Galatians 5:2223). Week Five: Scripture study of Charismata (1 Corinthians 12:111). Week Six: Service project or service-learning immersion experience. Week Seven: Going over traditional Catholic prayers (Our Father, Nicene Creed, Come, Holy Spirit,45 and Hail Mary). Week Eight: The Symbols within Confirmation (Oil/Chrism, Laying on of Hands, the phrase Be sealed with the gift of the Holy Spirit). Week Nine: The role of the Bishop and Gathered Assembly. I have been advocating and supervising with two youth ministers in parishes regarding these methods within the Archdiocese of Indianapolis for the past ten years, and it has gone over extremely well for all involved: youth ministers, catechists, youth, and parents. (McBrien 1995) Come, Holy Spirit, fill the hearts of your faithful. And kindle in them the fire of your love. Send forth Your Spirit and they shall be created. And you will renew the face of the earth. Lord, by the light of the Holy Spirit you have taught the hearts of your faithful. In the same Spirit help us, to relish what is right and always rejoice in your consolation. We ask this through Christ our Lord. Amen. This prayer is attributed to Rabanus Maurus (780856), a Benedictine monk and the ninth-century Archbishop of Mainz, East Francia (Germany today). Religions 2020, 11, 417 9 of 13 Week Ten: Celebrating The Rite of Confirmation. Week Eleven: Building community experience (some type of community experience with the young people, but not necessarily a service project). Week Twelve: Life after Confirmation: living a life in the Holy Spirit. This method probably gives the most formal catechetical time but the least experiential time with young people being confirmed. The catechist of this method would be wise to be super-creative with delivering religious and theological information in order for teens to experience and reflect on their instruction. Integrating some type of accompaniment program would be welcome for this method. Method Two: The Three-Day Weekend Retreat. This method would follow a weekend retreat scheme, and preferably off-site or away from the church grounds. The retreat would begin on Friday evening and end Sunday afternoon or evening with the celebration of Sunday Mass. Retreats are a solid pedagogical method for adolescents and young adults that strengthens faith and cultivates spirituality.46 The goal of any retreat is to bolster faith, Christian identity, and discipleship and enhance spirituality through a series of talks, music, discussions, activities, small groups, and community-building exercises. Confirmation retreats are an excellent way to exhort and edify adolescent faith.47 Below is an example of the suggested catechetical components or curriculum within this weekend retreat method. Some of the presentations for the weekend could be as follows: Why Confirmation? Because God Loves You, Theology of Confirmation, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Fruits of the Holy Spirit, and The Role of the Holy Spirit in Your Life, and Being on Fire for God after Confirmation. Of course, more developed sessions would have to be built around these talks such as ice-breakers, witness talks, small group sessions, silence and reflection time, journaling, and creative activities. A retreat planning team (perhaps from teens who were confirmed the previous year) would greatly impact the quality of the retreat. This method is the most pastoral of all the methods and is ideal for seasoned youth ministers who know: (a) the value of retreats and (b) the ways to plan, organize, and implement a weekend retreat. This method is extremely reasonable and suitable for older teenagers who have more hectic lifestyles trying to manage sports, jobs, and dating. Method Three: The One-Week Vacation Confirmation School. This method mirrors the typical vacation Bible school method. The time that this method occupies could either be in the morning or the evening. I would envision three-hour blocks per day. For example, a morning version could run from 9:00 to 12:00 Monday through Friday or an evening session could span from 5:00-8:00PM Monday through Friday. Ideally, this method should be a hybrid methodology between the first two methods discussed. It would be wise if a youth minister combined the best of the ideas from the more traditional catechetical method but also from the retreat method. Therefore, this approach to confirmation catechesis would depend upon plenty of volunteers just like a retreat. Below is an example of the suggested catechetical components or curriculum within this one-week vacation confirmation school method. Day One: Why Confirmation? Or, What does Confirmation do for me? 46 47 The focus is on welcoming teenagers, building community, and discussing students hopes for celebrating the Sacrament of Confirmation; briefly discussing the Rite of Confirmation. (Canales 2011, pp. 9394; 2018, pp. 7677, 147). (Carotta 2017, pp. 12). Religions 2020, 11, 417 Day Two: Bible Study on the Gifts of the Holy Spirit (Isaiah 11:23) and Fruits of the Holy Spirit (Galatians 5:2223). The focus here is getting students out into the community and serving; Christian service is a hallmark of discipleship and Christian spirituality. Day Four: Understanding the Rituals and Symbols with the Confirmation Celebration. The focus here is on teaching young people the significance of the Holy Spirit in Scripture. Day Three: Servus Deiliterally meaning servant of God in Latinwhich will be an immersion day of service and service-learning. 10 of 13 The focus here is on understanding the significance of the Rite of Confirmation and the various symbols that are present in the confirmation ceremony. Day Five: Living a Life in the Holy Spirit and Christian Discipleship. The focus here is on life after confirmation; stressing the young persons involvement in the church and getting involved in youth ministry and the larger life and ministries of the parish. The youth ministers or confirmation coordinators implementing this methodology would be wise to utilize ice-breakers, multi-media (music, videos, podcasts, etc.), small faith discussion groups, and activities to ignite the faith life in teenagers. Three hours of programming is a lot of time; therefore, it will need to be divided into manageable and age-appropriate blocks of time. These three confirmation catechetical methods are designed to help adolescents: (1) develop a deeper relationship with Jesus Christ and the Christian community; (2) increase and enhance the core content of Catholic confirmation and the Holy Spirit; (3) enrich and expand their understanding of the Scriptures and tradition surrounding the Holy Spirit; and (4) live and love more faithfully as Christian disciples by exercising prayer, justice, and service in daily life.48 From my experience, a shortened confirmation process provides more intense catechesis, spiritual formation, and experiential and accompaniment opportunities for young people to grow in the faith. Moreover, short, intense faith formation experience like retreats, mission trips, immersion experiences, and vacation Bible school increase and enhance cognitive, affective, and active spirituality.49 10. Strengths and Limitations of the Three Methodologies Although these three confirmation catechetical methodologies are worthy pastoral and spiritual encounters for teenagers during the process of confirmation, they are not beyond the scope of scrutiny. It is worthwhile to offer a few remarks regarding the strengths and limitations of these particular confirmation catechetical methodologies. Strengths: The first obvious asset is that all three of these catechetical methodologies are comprehensive and cover an array of topics revolving around confirmation. The second advantage is that these methods could easily be implemented by a larger parish that has a large number of young people being confirmed. In this way, it is family-friendly because it allows for more ownership on the part of the adolescent and provides each family the opportunity to select which type of catechetical method they prefer based on the familys availability. The third quality of these three methods is that they are flexible and adaptive in their approach, allowing for diversity in program settings. The fourth 48 49 RTV, 29. (Maddix and Estep 2017, p. 84). Religions 2020, 11, 417 11 of 13 benefit is that each of these methods can utilize both intergenerational and intercultural ministry techniques, especially by adopting practices that allow for diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds. The fifth value is that these methods are developmentally appropriate for programing and matches a young persons cognitive, moral, and spiritual growth. The sixth strength is that it serves the same function as the one or two year process, but in a lot less time, thus making it more conducive to the youth minister, parents, and teenagers. Limitations: One major disadvantage of these three catechetical methods is that they do not take into account home-schooled teenagers or folks living in rural areas. Regardless of their sacramental readiness and living experience, they are usually expected to make sacramental catechetical preparation at the parish despite the hardship. The second drawback is that some might think these methods are not long enough, that is, there needs to be more time actually preparing young people for the Sacrament of Confirmation. The third inadequacy is that if a parish decides to use all three methodologies in a given year, the parish will need three separate confirmation coordinators or the youth minister will have to do three separate confirmation sessions (certainly not impossible, but demanding). The fourth insufficiency is the reality of sponsors. Confirmation sponsors can add the overall spiritual edification of the young person. Thus, figuring out ways to utilize confirmation sponsors might be a challenge. There are positives and concerns with every ministry program and confirmation catechesis would be no exception. These three methodologies are strong despite the limitations because it provides the parish, youth minister, confirmation coordinator, parents, and teenager the option of selecting which type of catechetical plan they feel most comfortable with and that fits her/his schedule. 11. Conclusions This article addressed confirmation practices today, the two predominant models for confirmation, and the three methodologies for confirmation catechesis in Catholic youth ministry settings. The three methods for confirmation catechesis are designed to help alleviate the burden of having a year-long, week-after-week confirmation class, which typically bores most adolescents and burns out youth ministers. The intent of these three methods is to foster a more dynamic catechesis for confirmation that allows youth ministers and/or confirmation coordinators to adopt a more flexible pastoral approach to confirmationa pastoral approach that allows for creativity and fun, spiritual practices, and all the while learning about confirmation. The confirmation catechesis recommended here will help to transform young people into Christian disciples, who want to be active participants in the life of the parish community, which is the ultimate goal of confirmation. My hope is that this article is breaking new ground in confirmation literature and practice and that the article is widely read and distributed to pastors, youth ministers, and confirmation coordinators who are responsible for confirmation catechesis and will be able to implement the ideas gleaned from this article. The methods addressed in this article certainly do not alleviate all of the challenges that Catholic confirmation programs face, but it does solve the problem of lengthy and time-taxing confirmation catechesis. Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest. Primary Sources Congregation for the Clergy. 1977. General Directory for Catechesis. Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing. References Austin, Gerard. 1985. The Rite of Confirmation: Anointing with the Spirit. New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. Austin, Gerard. 1990. Eucharist and the Confirmation Debate. In Confirmed as Children, Affirmed as Teens. Edited by James A. Wilde. Chicago: Liturgical Training Publications, vol. 17, p. 25. Religions 2020, 11, 417 12 of 13 Bishops Committee on the Liturgy. 1972. Decisions on the National Conference of Catholic Bishops: Age for Confirmation. Newsletter 8: 32627. Bouley, Allan, ed. 1992a. Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults. In Catholic Rites Today: Abridged Texts for Students. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, pp. 33137, 1251. Bouley, Allan, ed. 1992b. Rite of Confirmation. In Catholic Rites Today: Abridged Texts for Students. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, pp. 16486. Canales, Arthur David. 2002. A Rebirth of Being Born-Again: Theological, Sacramental, and Pastoral Reflections from a Roman Catholic Perspective. Journal of Pentecostal Theology 11: 98119. [CrossRef] Canales, Arthur David. 2011. A Noble Quest: Cultivating Spirituality in Catholic Adolescents. Waco: Legacy Publishing. Canales, Arthur David. 2018. Models & Methods for Youth & Young Adult Ministry: Ecumenical Examples and Pastoral Approaches for the Christian Church. Eugene: Cascade Books. Carotta, Michael. 2011. Spirit & Truth: A Self-Guided Scripture Study for Confirmation and Beyond. New London: Twenty-Third Publications. Carotta, Michael. 2017. Have Faith: Sustaining the Spirit for Confirmation and Beyond. New London: Twenty-Third Publications. Davenport, Ernest Harold. 1916. The False Decretals. Oxford: Blackwell. Gaupin, Linda. 1989. Now Confirmation Needs Its Own Quam Signulari. In When Should We Confirm? Edited by James A. Wilde. Chicago: Liturgical Training Publications, pp. 8593. Harmon, Katherine E. 2019. The Restored Order for Initiation: Is it a Progressive or a Traditionalist Victory? Pray Tell Blog, 17. Available online: https://www.praytellblog.com/index.php/2019/08/26/the-restored-orderfor-initiation-is-it-a-progressive-or-a-traditionalist-victory/ (accessed on 15 May 2020). Huels, John M. 1988. Disputed Questions in the Liturgy Today. Chicago: Liturgical Training Publications. Kavanagh, Aidan. 1988. Confirmation: Origins and Reform. New York: Pueblo Publishing Company. Kubick, Arthur J. 1992. Confirmation at St. Elizabeths Parish: A Reflection. In Confirming the Faith of Adolescents: An Alternative Future for Confirmation. Edited by Arthur. J. Kubick. Mahwah: Paulist Press, pp. 7381. Maddix, Mark A., and James Riley Estep Jr. 2017. Practicing Christian Education: An Introduction for Ministry. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. McBrien, Richard P. 1995. Rabanus Maurus. In Encyclopedia of Catholicism. San Francisco: Harper SanFrancisco, p. 1076. National Federation for Catholic Youth Ministry. 2005. The Challenge of Adolescent Catechesis: Maturing in Faith. In Catholic Youth Ministry: The Essential Documents. Edited by Laurie Delgatto. Winona: Saint Marys Press, pp. 5895. National Initiative on Adolescent Catechesis, and National Federation for Catholic Youth Ministry. 2017. The Joy of Adolescent Catechesis. Washington, DC: National Catholic Educational Association. Neu, Lynn. 1992. Confirmation at Age Sixteen: Milwaukees Story. In Confirming the Faith of Adolescents: An Alternative Future for Confirmation. Edited by Arthur. J. Kubick. Mahwah: Paulist Press, pp. 8295. Osborne, Kenan B. 1987. The Christian Sacraments of Initiation: Baptism, Confirmation, and Eucharist. Mahwah: Paulist Press. Pope John Paul II. 1983. Code of Canon Law. Washington, DC: Canon Law Society of America. Pope John Paul II. 1997. Catechesism of the Catholic Church, Second Edition. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Root, Andrew. 2016. Regulating the Empirical in Practical Theology: On Critical Realism, Divine Action, and the Place of the Ministerial. Journal of Youth & Theology 15: 4464. Sawyer, Kieran. 1992. A Case for Adolescent Confirmation. In Confirming the Faith of Adolescents: An Alternative Future for Confirmation. Edited by Arthur. J. Kubick. Mahwah: Paulist Press, pp. 2545. Smolarski, Dennis C. 1996. Sacred Mysteries: Sacramental Principles and Liturgical Practice. Mahwah: Paulist Press. Turner, Paul. 2006. Confirmation: The Baby in Solomons Court, Revised and Updated. Chicago: Hillenbrand Books. USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 1978. National Catechetical Directory for Catholics of the United States (also called Sharing the Light of Faith). Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing. USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 1997. Renewing the Vision: A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry. Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing. USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 2005. National Directory for Catechesis. Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing. Religions 2020, 11, 417 13 of 13 Van Slyke, Daniel G. 2011. Confirmation: A Sacrament in Search of Theology? New Blackfriars 92: 52151. [CrossRef] Viramontes-Gutierrez, Theresa. 1992. A Look at Confirmation through Spanish Eyes. In Confirming the Faith of Adolescents: An Alternative Future for Confirmation. Edited by Arthur. J. Kubick. Mahwah: Paulist Press, pp. 96106. 2020 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 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... Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 v i va rium brill.com/viv Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus Primary Argument for the Univocity of Being Domenic DEttore Marian University, Indianapolis, USA ddettore@marian.edu Abstract This article considers the attempt by a prominent fifteenth-century follower of Thomas Aquinas, Dominic of Flanders (a.k.a. Flandrensis, 1425-1479), to address John Duns Scotus most famous argument for the univocity of being. According to Scotus, the intellect must have a concept of being that is univocal to substantial and accidental being, and to finite and infinite being, on the grounds that an intellect cannot be both certain and doubtful through the same concept, but an intellect can be certain that something is a being while doubting whether it is a substance or accident, finite or infinite. The article shows how Flandrensis reply in defence of analogy of being hinges on a more fundamental disagreement with Scotus over the division of the logically one. It also shows how Flandrensis answer to this question commits him to a position on the unity of the concept of being that lies between the positions of Scotus and of Flandrensis earlier Thomistic sources. Keywords Dominic of Flanders (Flandrensis) John Duns Scotus univocity analogy metaphysics Scotism Thomism John Duns Scotus (1265/66-1308) premises one of his arguments for the univocity of being said of God and creatures and across the categories by affirming that an intellect cannot be certain and doubtful through the same concept. * I would like to thank Brian Carl, Thomas Osborne, Jr. and the anonymous reviewers for their comments. koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2018 | doi 10.1163/15685349-12341352 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 177 Early Scotists considered Scotus argument beginning from the above premise to be decisive,1 and some would adopt the premise as a rule for supporting their own arguments for the univocity of being, including Francis of Meyronnes (ca. 1288-ca. 1328)2 and Nicholas Bonet (ca. 1280-1343).3 As would be expected, an argument that Scotists believed to be so forceful became the object of criticism and re-interpretation among the opponents of Scotus and Scotism. The overall history and range of responses coming from Thomists alone is worthy of a volume in its own right. This articles concern is the response of Dominic of Flanders (1425-1479), called the Prince of Thomist Philosophers, a student of John Versor (died after 1482), and a teacher of philosophy at the Dominican studium at Bologna.4 Flandrensis writing expresses 1 See S.D. Dumont, Henry of Ghent and Duns Scotus, in Routledge History of Philosophy, vol. 3: Medieval Philosophy, ed. J. Marenbon (London, 1998), 291-328, at 308. 2 See Franciscus de Mayronis, Prologus in Sententias, q. 4 (In quatuor libros Sententiarum , ed. Venice, 1520, f. 4rb): Dico ergo istis suppositis quod subiectum primi principii, quod est ens, habet conceptum unum et univocum Deo et creaturae. Et hoc probo sic: primo supponitur una regula doctoris quae est talis: quandocumque aliquis intellectus est certus de uno conceptu et dubius de duobus, habet conceptum unum de quo est certus alium a duobus de quibus est dubius. See similar remarks in Franciscus de Mayronis, Tractatus de u nivocatione entis (ed. Venice, 1520, f. 271va). On Francis of Meyronnes, see C.H. Lohr, Medieval Latin Aristotle Commentaries: Authors A-F, Traditio 23 (1967), 313-413, at 409; R. Lambertini, Francis of Meyronnes, in A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, ed. J.J.E. Gracia and T.B. Noone (Oxford, 2003), 256-257; and W.O. Duba, Francis of Meyronnes, in Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500, ed. H. Lagerlund, 2 vols. (Dordrecht, 2011), vol. 1, 364a-366b (Lambertini and Duba note points on which Meyronnes follows or parts from Scotus). 3 See also Nicholas Bonetus, Metaphysica I, c. 2 (Habes Nicholai Bonetti viri perpicacissimi quattuor volumina , ed. Venice, 1505, f. 2va). On Nicholas Bonet, see C.H. Lohr, Medieval Latin Aristotle Commentaries. Authors: Narcissus-Richardus, Traditio 28 (1972), 281-396, at 285-286, and W.O. Duba, Three Franciscan Metaphysicians After Scotus, in A Companion to the Latin Medieval Commentaries on Aristotles Metaphysics, ed. F. Amerini and G. Galluzzo (Leiden, 2014), 413-493, at 464-488. Duba emphasizes that Bonet, unlike Antonius Andreas, for example, was not a strict Scotist (413-414). For specific treatment of Bonet on the univocity of being, see I. Mandrella, La controverse sur lunivocation de ltant et le surtranscendental: La mtaphysique de Nicolas Bonet, Quaestio 8 (2008), 159-175, at 165-170. I point here to passages from Meyronnes and Bonet not because they are notably faithful Scotists, but because Dominic of Flanders cites them as though they are representative Scotists. 4 Dominic of Flanders is called the Prince of Thomist Philosophers in the title page illustration of the 1621 edition of his book of metaphysical questions (cited in full below). On Dominic, see L. Mahieu, Dominique de Flandre (XV e siecle) sa metaphysique (Paris, 1942); M. Tavuzzi, Some Renaissance Thomist Divisions of Analogy, Angelicum 70 (1993), 93-121, at 9697; and F. Riva, LAnalogia dellente in Domenico di Fiandra, Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 178 D Ettore both the reception of a tradition of Scotist-Thomist debate over the merits and implications of what one early Scotist called Scotus famous argument concerning a doubtful and certain concept, or the Certain and Doubtful Argument (henceforth CDA; see section 2 below), and Frandrensis own influence on the direction of that tradition.5 This article presents Flandrensis treatment of the CDA, highlighting how Flandrensis applies his understanding of proportional unity in a way that distinguishes his response from those of his Thomist sources,6 and showing how Flandrensis reply to Scotus argument presumes that Scotus has made a more fundamental error in his division of the modes of logical unity. Flandrensis attempt to answer Scotus CDA leads him to embrace a distinct overall position on the unity of the concept of being that lies between the Thomistic position, represented by the likes of Hervaeus Natalis (ca. 1260-1323) and John Versor, and the position of Scotus. The case of Flandrensis criticism further shows that attention to the diverse positions held by Thomists and Scotists on logical unity is necessary for evaluating the merits of their respective positions on the analogy or univocity of being. 1 Underlying Issues: Concepts and Univocal Names The Thomists and Scotists alike agree that names signify things through concepts.7 When a name is said of many through the same concept (and 86 (1994), 287-322. On John Versor, see P. Rutten, Secundum processum et mentem Versoris: John Versor and His Relation to the Schools of Thought Reconsidered, Vivarium 43 (2005), 293-336. Rutten identifies Flandrensis as one of Versors students (295, n. 9). This connection is also made in E.J. Ashworth, Analogical Concepts: The Fourteenth Century Background to Cajetan, Dialogue 31 (1992), 399-413, at 406. 5 Petri Thomae Quaestiones de ente, q. 10, a. 2 (ed. G.R. Smith, Leuven, 2018, 262): ista ratio famosa de conceptu dubio et certo. Stephen D. Dumont had cited this passage in The Univocity of the Concept of Being in the Fourteenth Century: John Duns Scotus and William of Alnwick, Mediaeval Studies 49 (1987), 1-75, at 8, n. 19. 6 In a future study, I plan to compare Flandrensis response to those of his contemporary Thomists, such as Paul Soncinas and Thomas di Vio Cajetan. 7 The locus classicus on the signification of names is Aristotle, De interpretatione, ch. 1: 16a. For Thomas on signification, see especially Thomas Aquinas, Expositio libri Peryermenias I, lec. 2 (Opera Omnia, vol. 1*/1, ed. R.A. Gauthier, Rome, 1989, 9-13). For Scotus, see especially John Duns Scotus, In primum librum Perihermenias quaestiones, q. 2 (Opera Omnia I, Paris, 1891, 540a-544b). The differences between Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and other figures of the thirteenth to early fourteenth century on signification are treated in G. Pini, Species, Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 179 thereby according to the same signification), the name is said of many univocally. When a name is said of many through diverse concepts, the name is said equivocally.8 John Duns Scotus does not acknowledge any middle ground between predicating a name of many through one concept, and therefore univocally, and predicating a name of many through diverse concepts, and therefore equivocally.9 Consequently, for Scotus, to establish that being is said univocally about created and uncreated being, finite and infinite, substance and accident, it is sufficient to show that the name is said of the members of these pairs through one concept. Fifteenth-century Thomists distinguish different senses of one or unity. They restrict univocity to cases wherein a name is said of many through one equally participated concept; names said of many through one unequally participated concept, on the other hand, they group among those that are said analogously rather than univocally or purely equivocally.10 For these Thomists, Concept, and Thing: Theories of Signification in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century, Medieval Philosophy and Theology 8 (1999), 21-52. See also E.J. Ashworth, Signification and Modes of Signification in Thirteenth-Century Logic: A Preface to Aquinas on Analogy, Medieval Philosophy and Theology 1 (1991), 39-67, at 43-53, and R. van der Lecq, Logic and Theories of Meaning in the Late 13th and Early 14th Century Including the Modistae, in Handbook of the History of Logic, vol. 2: Mediaeval and Renaissance Logic, ed. D.M. Gabbay and J. Woods (Amsterdam, 2007), 347-388, at 349-353. 8 For an excellent survey of the dispute over the distinction between the univocal, equivocal, and analogous signification of terms from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century, see the series of articles by E.J. Ashworth, Signification and Modes of Signifying in Thirteenth-Century Logic; Analogy and Equivocation in Thirteenth-Century Logic: Aquinas in Context, Mediaeval Studies 54 (1992), 94-135; and Metaphor and the Logicians from Aristotle to Cajetan, Vivarium 45 (2007), 311-327. 9 For a discussion of analogy as semantically reducible to univocity in the writings of Scotus, see R. Cross, Duns Scotus and Analogy: A Brief Note, The Modern Schoolman 89 (2012), 147-154. See also Ashworth, Analogical Concepts, 405-406. There are many scholarly treatments of Scotus doctrine of univocity that are used and cited in A. Hall, Scotus on Knowledge of God, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (accessed 14 June 2017); URL = http://www.iep.utm.edu/scotuskg/ 10 There is considerable disagreement among the fifteenth-century Thomists over what it means for a concept to be participated in equally or unequally. Some of these are treated in D. DEttore, The Fifteenth-Century Thomist Dispute over Participation in an Analogous Concept: John Capreolus, Dominic of Flanders, and Paul Soncinas, Mediaeval Studies 76 (2014), 241-273. For a brief treatment of Peter Auriol, an important influence on Capreolus treatment of the concept of being, see especially S.F. Brown, Lunit du concept dtre au dbut du quatorzime sicle, in John Duns Scotus: Metaphysics and Ethics, ed. L. Honnefelder, R. Wood, and M. Dreyer (Leiden, 1996), 336-344. For a more general discussion of Auriol as an influence on Thomist theory of knowledge by way of his impact Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 180 D Ettore establishing that a name is said of many through one concept invites further questions about the way in which the concept is one. Flandrensis reply to the CDA illustrates one way in which a Thomist finds the one concept Scotus argues for in his CDA to be insufficiently one for univocity. 2 Scotus Certain and Doubtful Argument for a Univocal Concept of Being Before proceeding further, I briefly relate the Certain and Doubtful Argument (CDA) as it appears in two texts by Scotus. In his Ordinatio, the CDA is the first of five arguments for the univocity of being in the question Can the intellect of the wayfarer have a simple concept in which God is conceived?11 The argument reads as follows: Every intellect that is certain about one concept and doubtful about other concepts has a concept about which it is certain that is other than the concepts about which it is doubtfulthe subject includes the predicate. But the intellect of the wayfarer can be certain about God that God is a being while doubting [whether God is a] finite or infinite being, created or uncreated. Therefore, the concept of being [that the intellect of the wayfarer has] about God is other than the former and the latter concept [that is, infinite being and uncreated being], and so [the concept of being is] neither of them and it is included in both of them. Therefore, [it is] univocal.12 The arguments major premise denies that an intellect can be certain and doubtful through one and the same concept at the same time. The minor premise adds that an inquirer can be certain that God is a being and, at the on Capreolus, see S.-T. Bonino, Capreolus contre Pierre Auriol: une certaine ide de la connaissance, in Jean Capreolus en son temps (1380-1444), Colloque de Rodez, Mmoire Dominicaine (Paris, 1997), 139-158. 11 Iohannes Duns Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-2 (Opera Omnia III, ed. C. Bali et al., Vatican City, 1954, 11). 12 Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-2, n. 27 (ed. Bali, 18): omnis intellectus, certus de uno conceptu et dubius de diversis, habet conceptum de quo est certus alium a conceptibus de quibus est dubius; subiectum includit praedicatum. Sed intellectus viatoris potest esse certus de Deo quod sit ens, dubitando de ente finito vel infinito, creato vel increato; ergo conceptus entis de Deo est alius a conceptu isto et illo, et ita neuter ex se et in utroque illorum includitur; igitur univocus. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 181 same time, be uncertain of whether God is a finite being or an infinite being, a created being or an uncreated being. The syllogism concludes that the concept of being through which the inquirer is certain that God is a being must not be the same concept as the concepts of finite being or infinite being, created being or uncreated being, about which the intellect is uncertain. Scotus infers that the concept of being is both different from the concepts of infinite being and finite being, etc., and yet included in these diverse concepts. From this conclusion, Scotus draws the further inference that the concept of being is univocal. Scotus proceeds to prove his premises. Regarding the major premise: The proof of the major [is] that no one and the same concept is certain and doubtful. Therefore, either it is one of these, which is our position, or noneand then there will be no certainty about any concept.13 Moving on to the minor premise: The proof of the minor: each philosopher was certain that what he affirmed to be the first principle was a being. For example, the one [who affirmed] about fire [that it was the first principle] and the other [who affirmed the same] about water were certain that it was a being. But he was not certain that it was a created or uncreated being, first or not first. For he was not certain that it was first, because then he would have been certain about the false, and the false is not knowable; nor [was he certain] that it was not the first being, because then he would not have affirmed the opposite.14 Scotus observes that the ancient philosophers were certain that fire or water was a being, although they were uncertain whether fire or water was the first principle. They were able to be certain about something (e.g., fire) that it was a being, while uncertain about whether it was created or uncreated, etc., because the concept of being is other than, but included in, the other concepts. 13 Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-2, n. 28 (ed. Bali, 18): Probatio maioris, quia nullus idem conceptus est certus et dubius; ergo vel alius, quod est propositum, vel nulluset tunc non erit certitudo de aliquo conceptu. 14 Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-2, n. 29 (ed. Bali, 18-19): Probatio minoris: quilibet philosophus fuit certus, illud quod posuit primum principium, esse ens,puta unus de igne et alius de aqua, certus erat quod erat ens; non autem fuit certus quod esset ens creatum vel increatum, primum vel non primum. Non enim erat certus quod erat primum, quia tunc fuisset certus de falso, et falsum non est scibile; nec quod erat ens non primum, quia tunc non posuissent oppositum. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 182 D Ettore After arguing that this experience of certitude and doubt applies even to the one listening to the philosophers,15 Scotus concludes by addressing an objection according to which the philosophers in Scotus proof of the minor did not have one concept of being, but instead two proximate concepts that seem to be one due to their proximity of analogy. Scotus counters that this line of reasoning would render it impossible to establish that any concept has univocal unity. Even in what should be a clear example of univocal unitysuch as a single concept for Socrates and Platoone could claim that there is not one concept (i.e., human) but two concepts that appear to be one due to their great likeness.16 Scotus gives a similar argument in his questions on the Metaphysics IV, question 1, on Whether being is said univocally about all things. This time the argument focuses on being said across the categories. Scotus finds evidence for one concept of being across the categories in our ability to doubt whether some being, such as light, is a substance or an accident.17 Dominic of Flanders engages questions about the unity of being and how it is said across the categories and about God and creatures in book IV of a work known as Summa divinae philosophiae.18 The CDA first appears in Summa divinae philosophiae IV, question 2, article 3, Whether being is predicated 15 Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-2, n. 29 (ed. Bali, 19). 16 Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-2, n. 30 (ed. Bali, 20). On the background for this objection in Henry of Ghent, see S.D. Dumont, Transcendental Being: Scotus and the Scotists, Topoi 11 (1992), 135-148, at 136-140. Dumont observes (143) that followers of Scotus, especially Peter of Aquila (1361), explicitly direct Scotus arguments for univocity of being against the writings of Thomas Aquinas. 17 Iohannes Duns Scotus, Quaestiones super libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis (= In Meta.) IV, q. 1 (Opera Philosophica III, ed. R. Andrews, G. Etzkorn, G. Gl, R. Green, F. Kelley, G. Marcil, T. Noone, and R. Wood (St. Bonaventure, NY, 1997, 306-307): Item, patet aliter: experimur in nobis ipsis quod possumus concipere ens, non concipiendo hoc ens esse in se aut in alio, quia dubitatio est quando concipimus ens, utrum sit ens in se vel in alio; sicut patet de lumine, utrum sit forma substantialis per se subsistens vel accidentalis exsistens in alio sicut forma. Ergo aliquid indifferens concipimus primo ad utrumque illorum, quia utrumque illorum postea invenimus quod in isto salvatur primus conceptus: quid sit ens. 18 References are taken from Dominic of Flanders and Cosmas Morelles, In duodecim libros Metaphysicae Aristotelis, secundum expositionem eiusdem Angelici Doctoris, lucidissimae atque utilissimae quaestiones (henceforth, I use its alternative title Summa divinae philosophiae) (ed. Cologne, 1621). The text was first published in Venice in 1499. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 183 univocally about God and creatures, [and] similarly about substance and accident. The article takes up thirty objections.19 Objection 9 reads as follows: Further, every intellect [that is] certain about one concept and doubtful about diverse [concepts], among which the certain one is included according to quiddity, has that concept about which it is certain different from and univocal to those concepts about which it is doubtful. [This is] because it is impossible that the same concept is certain and doubtful to the same intellect. But the intellect of a human can be certain about something that it is a being while doubting whether it is God or creature, as is clear from the ancient philosophers when they conceded [that there was] one first principle, but some affirmed [that it was] air, others fire, etc. And similarly about substance and accident, for there are some who concede that light is a being, but doubt whether it is a substance or an accident. Therefore, being expresses one concept univocal to substance and accident, and, consequently, it will be predicated univocally. If it is said that any such person had in his intellect two proximate concepts, which, because of the proximity of analogy, seem to be one concept, and he seems to be certain about onethat is, about those two doubtful concepts, to the contrary: from that evasion, every way of proving the univocal unity of any concept seems to be destroyed. For if you say that human has one concept about Socrates and Plato, it will be denied to you and said that they are two concepts, but they seem to be one because of great proximity and likeness.20 19 The objections themselves come from a variety of sources, including passages from Thomas Aquinas own work. 20 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ob. 9 (ed cit., 147a): Praeterea, omnis intellectus certus de uno conceptu, et dubius de diversis, in quibus ille certus secundum quidditatem includitur, habet conceptum illum de quo est certus alium a conceptibus de quibus est dubius univocum illis: quia impossibile est eundem conceptum eidem intellectui esse certum et dubium: sed intellectus hominis potest esse certus de aliquo quod sit ens, dubitando utrum sit Deus vel creatura, ut patet de antiquis philosophis, cum concesserunt unum primum principium, sed aliqui posuerunt aerem, aliqui ignem etc. Et similiter de substantia, et accidente: nam aliqui sunt qui concedunt de luce quod sit ens, tamen dubitant an sit substantia vel accidens. Ergo ens dicit unum conceptum univocum substantiae et accidenti: et per consequens praedicabitur univoce. Si dicatur quod quilibet talis habuit duos conceptus in intellectu suo propinquos, qui propter propinquitatem analogiae videtur esse unus conceptus, et videtur esse certus de uno, hoc est de illis duobus dubiis conceptibus, contra: quia ex ista evasione videtur destrui omnis via probandi unitatem univocam alicuius conceptus. Si enim dicis hominem habere unum Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 184 D Ettore Flandrensis version of the CDA is not a direct quotation of either passage from Scotus discussed above, nor is it derivative from his Scotist sources Meyronnes and Bonet.21 Flandrensis Thomist source, Thomas Anglicus, provides an almost word-for-word version of the CDA in Scotus Ordinatio.22 Flandrensis version of the CDA is primarily an abbreviation of the CDA in Scotus Ordinatio, but one that adds Scotus questions on the Metaphysics IV, question 1s concern with being as common to the categories, including the example about light. I take the distinctive abbreviations and additions in Flandrensis version of the CDA to indicate that the primary target of Flandrensis arguments is Scotus argument, rather than the arguments of the Scotists whom he mentions in the reply (i.e., Meyronnes and Bonet). Indeed, Flandrensis passes over the Scotists variations and developments of the argument, and he appeals to their doctrines only as support for his own criticism of the CDA. The detail and length of Flandrensis reply (nearly two full columns) reveal the gravity of the CDA in his eyes.23 I will focus on the parts of Flandrensis reply that employ his doctrine of logical unity. conceptum de Sorte et Platone, negabitur tibi, et dicetur quod sunt duo conceptus, sed videntur unus propter magnam propinquitatem et similitudinem. 21 Neither Bonet nor Meyronnes presents close renderings of either passage from Scotus in their works cited by Flandrensis. 22 See Thomas Anglicus, Contra Joannem Scotum primo sententiarum, d. 3, q. 1 (ed. Venice, 1523, f. 35vb). A portion of d. 3, q. 1, can be found in Zur Diskussion ber das Problem der Univozitt in Umkreis des Johannes Duns Skotus, ed. M. Schmaus (Munich, 1957), 126-129. Other parts of this work by Thomas Anglicus have also been edited by Schmaus in Der Liber propugnatorius des Thomas Anglicus und die Lehrunterschiede zwischen Thomas von Aquin und Duns Scotus. II. Teil: Die trinitarischen Lehrdifferenzen (Mnster, 1930). I am unaware of any modern editions of Thomas Anglicus work that contain the particular passages cited in this article.Flandrensis could also have come across a similarly complete version of the CDA in Scotus Ordinatio from reading Iohannes Capreolus, Defensiones theologiae divi Thomae Aquinatis I, d. 22, q. 1, a. 2 (ed. C. Paban and T. Pegues, 7 vols., Tours, 1900-1908; reprint Frankfurt, 1967, vol. 2, 173a-b). Hervaeus Natalis gives a sampling of certain and doubtful based arguments, but no extended quotation or paraphrase of Scotus argument in a Quodlibet, which Flandrensis cites later in the question. See Hervaeus Natalis, Quodlibet II, q. 7 (Quolibeta Hervei: subtilissima Hervei Natalis Britonis, ed. Venice, 1513; reprint Ridgewood, NJ, 1966, f. 44v). John Versor gives a version of the argument derivative of Scotus Ordinatio, but the examples that Versor adds in the minor premise suggest that Versor is not Flandrensis source for the argument: Iohannes Versor, Quaestiones super metaphysicam Aristotelis IV, q. 1 (ed. Cologne, 1494; reprint Frankfurt, 1967, ff. 24vb-25ra). 23 The only other reply that takes up a full columns worth of text is ad 10: Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 10 (ed cit., 151b-152a). Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 3 185 Flandrensis Replies to the CDA 3.1 Flandrensis Denies the Major The first part of Flandrensis Summa divinae philosophiae IV, question 2, article 3, ad 9 consists in a series of attacks on the CDAs major premise: that an intellect cannot be certain and doubtful through the same concept. These criticisms rely on (unoriginal) counter-analogies intended to show the absurd consequences that follow from the proposition.24 Flandrensis doctrine of unity first appears after these counter-analogies, within an argument charging the CDAs major premise with equivocation on the terms one and common: [I]t labors in equivocation. First, with regards to [the use of] the term one. For one is said in many ways (as is clear in the fifth [book] of this [work], lecture 6). But there are two ways that are relevant to the matter at hand. In the first way, [it is said] for one by the unity of univocation. In the other way, [it is said] for one by the unity of proportion. For given that one has to assert, by virtue of what is assumed, one concept of being, by unity of analogy, in addition to the proper concepts of substance and of accident, nevertheless, such a concept does not have to be one by the unity of univocation. Similarly, [it labors in equivocation] regarding the term common, because something is said to be common in two ways. In one way, [something is said to be common] by the community of abstraction. In another way, by the community of proportion. Granted that one concept of being is asserted, nevertheless, it is not required on account of this to concede that such a concept is common by the community of abstraction (as will be clear below in the following article), although it is common by the community of attribution, so that such a concept is attributed properly and primarily to substance, but secondarily to accident. Also, the aforementioned major premise commits the fallacy of turning many questions into one: because it seeks to give one numerically singular answer about diverse proposals.25 24 See Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 9 (ed. cit., 150b). Some of Flandrensis arguments in this first part of his ad 9 also appear as refutable objections in Franciscus de Mayronis, Prologus, q. 2 (ed. cit., f. 4rb-va). 25 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 9 (ed. cit., 150b-151a): Secundo praeterea, laborat in aequivocatione. Primo ex parte huius dictionis, unum: nam unum dicitur multis modis, ut patet 5 huius, lectione sexta. Sed ad propositum, duobus modis. Primo modo pro uno, unitate univocationis. Alio modo pro uno, unitate proportionis. Dato enim quod oportet ponere virtute assumpti, praeter conceptus proprios substantiae Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 186 D Ettore To understand Flandrensis argument here, first recall the two stages of Scotus CDA. In the first stage, Scotus concludes from the impossibility of being certain and doubtful through the same concept (i.e., the major premise), and the experience of being certain that something is a being while uncertain if it is finite or infinite, created or uncreated, substance or accident (i.e., the minor premise), that the concept of being is different from but common to the concepts of finite and infinite being, etc. The second stage of the argument consists in the inference that such a concept is univocal to finite and infinite being, etc. Flandrensis grants that the first stage of the CDA succeeds in showing that there is a concept of being that is in some respect distinguishable from and common to the concepts of substance and accidents, etc., but Flandrensis denies Scotus further inference that such a common concept is necessarily univocal. Flandrensis proposes instead that a common concept can be one either by unity of univocation (which he ties to community of abstraction) or by unity of analogy (which he ties to community of proportion). According to Flandrensis, the inference at the second stage of the argument assumes a different sense of one or unity than the first stage of the argument succeeds in establishing for the concept of being. That is, the first stage of the argument shows only that there is one concept of being in some sense of one, not necessarily the one/ unity of univocity. Put briefly, Flandrensis argument charges the CDAs major premise with overlooking unity of analogy and, thereby, equivocating on the terms one or unity. Although one cannot be certain and doubtful through a concept that is one univocally, one can be both certain and doubtfulaccording to Flandrensisthrough a concept that is one analogously.26 By following Flandrensis reference to his Summa divinae philosophiae V, question 6, the reader finds a treatment of unity that counts unity of proportion as a mode of unity. In this question, closely modeled on Thomas Aquinas et accidentis, conceptum unum entis, unitate analogiae, non tamen oportet quod talis conceptus sit unus, unitate univocationis. Similiter ex parte huius termini communis. Quia aliquid dicitur commune dupliciter. Uno modo, communitate abstractionis. Alio modo, communitate proportionis. Concesso autem quod ponatur unus conceptus entis, non tamen oportet propter hoc concedere quod talis conceptus sit communis, communitate abstractionis, ut infra patebit in sequenti articulo, licet sit communis communitate attributionis, ita quod talis conceptus proprie et primo attribuitur substantiae, secunda rio vero accidenti. Peccat etiam praedicta maior, secundum plures interrogationes, ut unam. Quia petit de diversis in singulari numero propositis, dari unam responsionem. 26 It should be noted here that Flandrensis does not explain positively that the CDA establishes that the concept of being has unity of analogy. He tries within his reply only to show that arguments raised against his position fail to provide convincing grounds for abandoning his position. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 187 In V Metaphysics, lecture 8,27 Flandrensis specifies that the one or unity divides into the one per accidens and the one per se. The one per se subdivides into the one naturally and the one logically,28 and the one logically further subdivides into four modes: numerical, generic, specific, and proportion or analogy.29 Concerning the last mode, Flandrensis writes: In the fourth mode, some things are called one by proportion or analogy, namely all things that agree in this, that this relates to that in the same way as something else relates to another. And this happens in two ways. In the first way, in that [fourth way], [some things are called one by proportion] because some two things have different relations to some one thing. And this [happens] in three ways. Either they relate to some one thing as to an end, as when different things are said to be healthy. Or they relate to one efficient [cause], as [occurs with] medicative things. Or they relate to one subject, as accidents to a substance. In the second way, [they relate] insofar as there is the same proportion of two things to diverse things, as tranquillity [relates] to the sea, and serenity [relates] to the air. For tranquillity is calmness of the sea, and serenity is calmness of the air.30 Flandrensis proceeds to defend the sufficiency of the four-fold division of the logically one as follows: For an intellect understanding something under the ratio of one understands it either under the ratio of incommunicable or under the ratio of communicable. If the first, then some things are one in number. If the second, this is in two ways. The intellect understands it under the ratio of 27 See Thomas Aquinas, In duodecim libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis expositio V, lec. 8 (ed. M.-R. Cathala and R.M. Spiazzi, 2nd ed., Torino-Rome, 1971, 236). 28 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae V, q. 6, a. 1 (ed. cit., 241a-b). 29 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae V, q. 6, a. 3 (ed. cit., 244b-245a). 30 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae V, q. 6, a. 3 (ed. cit. 245a): Quarto modo, aliqua dicuntur unum proportione sive analogia, quaecumque scilicet in hoc conveniunt quod hoc se habet ad illud, sicut aliud ad aliud. Et hoc contingit duobus modis. Primo modo, in eo quia aliqua duo diversas habent habitudines ad aliquod vnum. Et hoc tripliciter. Vel ad aliquod unum, tanquam ad finem, sicut diversa sanitiva. Vel ad unum efficiens, sicut medicativa. Vel ad unum subiectum sicut accidentia ad substantiam. Secundo modo, in eo quod est eadem proportio duorum ad diversa, sicut tranquilitatis ad mare, et serenitas ad aerem: tranquillitas enim est quies maris, et serenitas, est quies aeris. See also his fivefold division of similitude in Summa divinae philosophiae V, q. 10, a. 1 (ed. cit., 275a). Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 188 D Ettore the communicable either in many things different only in number, and then they are one in species, or in many things different in species. And this is in two ways. It is communicable either according to the same name and according to the same ratio equally participated, and then they are one in genus, or according to the same name and according to the same ratio participated in diverse ways, and then some things are one by proportion. From this it is clear that the aforementioned division is well assigned, since it contains nothing lacking nor superfluous.31 Flandrensis offers no sources behind his argument for the sufficiency of this four-fold division of the logically one. There is none like it in Thomas Aquinas Commentary. The argument, however, would be familiar to the reader of John Duns Scotus questions in Metaphysics V. A comparison of the Dominicans argument with the Franciscans is instructive. Regarding the same four-fold division of logical unity, Scotus writes: And then the sufficiency is assigned, because the intellect, understanding something under the ratio of one, understands either under the ratio of incommunicable, and this is numerical unity, or under the ratio of predicable of many. In the latter case, [it understands] in one of two ways: either [about many] things differing numerically, and then [it is] specific unity; or about many things differing in species, and then [it is] generic unity. Beyond this unity there is not found one predicable concept; nevertheless, by taking one most common concept and comparing it to another most common concept, unity of proportion is found in relating similarly to other things, namely, [to] their inferiors in predicating about them in quid. Thus, the division is sufficient.32 31 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae V, q. 6, a. 3 (ed. cit., 245a): Nam intellectus, intelligens aliquid sub ratione unius, aut intelligit illud sub ratione incommunicabilis aut sub ratione communicabilis. Si primum, sic sunt aliqua unum numero. Si secundum, hoc est dupliciter. Aut intelligit illud sub ratione communicabilis, in pluribus differentibus numero solum, et sic sunt unum specie. Aut in pluribus differentibus specie. Et hoc est dupliciter. Aut illud est communicabile, secundum idem nomen, et secundum eandem rationem, aequaliter participatam, et sic sunt unum genere. Aut secundum idem nomen, et secundum eandem rationem, diversimode participatam, et sic aliqua sunt unum proportione. Ex quo patet quod praedicta divisio est bene assignata, cum nihil diminutum neque superfluum contineat. 32 Scotus, In Meta. V, q. 4 (ed. Andrews et al., 439.2-11): Et tunc assignatur sufficientia, quia intellectus intelligens aliquid sub ratione unius, aut intelligit sub ratione incommunicabilis, et haec est unitas numeralis; aut sub ratione praedicabilis de pluribus, tunc dupliciter: Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus Grasped under the ratio of one Incommunicable [Numerical Unity] Communicable Many differing in number [Specific Unity] Many differing in species Figure 1 Equally participated [Generic Unity] Unequally participated [Proportional Unity] Dominic of Flanders division of the logically one. A single ratio grasped under the ratio of one Incommunicable [Numerical Unity] Communicable Two or more rationes grasped under the ratio of one [Proportional Unity] Figure 2 189 Many differing in number [Specific Unity] Many differing in species [Generic Unity] John Duns Scotus division of the logically one. Flandrensis argument is clearly written with Scotus in mind.33 As in Flandrensis Summa divinae philosophiae V, Scotus questions in Metaphysics V affirm proportional unity as part of the sufficient four-fold division of unity alongside numerical, specific, and generic. There is a significant difference, however, between Scotus and his Thomist critic. Scotus and Flandrensis share the common premise that the intellect grasps something under the ratio of one either under the ratio of incommunicable and then the ratio is predicable only of a single individualor under the ratio of communicableand then the ratio is predicable of many. Both identify the predicable of one with numerical unity. Both divide the communicable through aut differentibus numero, tunc unitas speciei; aut de pluribus differentibus specie, tunc unitas generis. Ultra hanc unitatem non est invenire unum conceptum praedicabilem; tamen unum conceptum accipiendo communissimum comparando alii communissimo, invenitur unitas proportionis in similiter se habendo ad alia, scilicet sua inferiora in praedicando in quid de eis. Sic divisio sufficiens est. 33 Bonet discusses unity in his Metaphysica V, c. 1 (ed. cit., ff. 27ra-28rb), but this chapter features no treatment of logical unity parallel to those in Flandrensis Summa divinae philosophiae V or Scotus In Meta. V. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 190 D Ettore the difference many-differing-in-number, and they assign specific unity to the ratio predicated of many-differing-in-number. Scotus and Flandrensis part ways on the status of the ratio predicated of many-differing-not-onlyin-number, with Flandrensis alone dividing the many-differing-not-only-innumber through the difference equally participated, and, consequently, into generic and proportional unity. Proportional unity is lesser than generic unity because the common ratio among the proportionally one is participated in diverse ways. By contrast, Scotus claims that proportional unity requires two diverse rationes or concepts.34 The comparison between Scotus and Flandrensis divisions of the logically one reveals that Flandrensis appeal to proportional unity against the CDA depends on Flandrensis understanding of diverse participation in a ratio or conceptan understanding that he does not share with Scotus.35 The above has shown that Flandrensis rejects the major premise of the CDA by appealing to proportional unity. The success of this strategy, however, is limited, since Flandrensis does not address the difference between his own and Scotus understandings of proportional unity. Since Scotus explicitly excludes proportional unity from among the modes of logical unity through which a single ratio can be predicated of many, from Scotus perspective, Flandrensis appeal to proportional unity simply misses the mark by begging the question on a more fundamental disagreement over a names signification. For Flandrensis to convince a follower of Scotus of the weakness of the CDAs major premise, he would first have to convince such a Scotist that a single ratio can be diversely participated and, therefore, predicated of many proportionally. When he attempts later in Summa divinae philosophiae IV to explain diverse participation in a single ratio, Flandrensis will find himself opposing his Thomist predecessors on the unity of the concept of being. I will treat this point below, after first considering Flandrensis arguments against the CDAs minor premise. 3.2 Flandrensis Denies the Minor The CDAs minor premise is that one can be certain that something is a being while uncertain if it is finite or infinite, created or uncreated, substance or 34 I have searched in vain for a contemporary treatment of Scotus understanding of unity of proportion. Other aspects of this passage from Scotus are discussed in J. Aertsen, Being and One: The Doctrine of the Convertible Transcendentals in Duns Scotus, Franciscan Studies 56 (1998), 47-64. 35 Equal participation in a ratio appears as a requirement for univocity in Thomas Aquinas, Expositio libri Peryermenias I, lec. 8 (ed. Gauthier, 40.53-72). For a parallel passage in Flandrensis work, see Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 10 (ed. cit. 151b-152a). Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 191 accident. Among Flandrensis objections to the minor premise, a pair claim to observe fallacies36 in Scotus defence of the minor premise and one objection appeals to yet another form of unity in addition to the modes of unity discussed in Summa divinae philosophiae V. Flandrensis first argument appeals to the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi,37 and I pass over it to his second argument in which he once again invokes his doctrine of proportional unity. This second argument claims to find an equivocation in the CDAs minor premise: If we are speaking about being that is divided immediately into the ten categories or about being that is divided into God and creatures, this [being] can be understood in two ways. In one way, [it can be understood] by taking being only for its own proper and primary significate, without understanding it together with the secondary significate. For the being that is predicated of God, [and] all other names, signify the divine essence first and properly, but [they signify] participatively the perfections of creatures. Likewise, real created being, which is divided into the ten categories, signifies substance itself first, principally, and immediately and [it signifies] accident itself consequently or secondarily. But it is thus impossible for our intellect to be certain about something that it is a being without knowing whether it is substance, when the significations of the terms are known. Indeed, it implies a contradiction. In another way, we can speak about being insofar as it is extended to what it signifies secondarily, by the extension of proportion, not of abstraction, and thus, the intellect can be certain that something is a being, namely a substance or an accident, nevertheless without knowing determinately whether it is a substance or an accident. Nevertheless, it is not required because of this to posit a single concept by the unity of univocation, but only to posit a single concept by the unity of proportion. For the concept of substance and the concept of accident are one by the unity of analogy, which is meant by the name being, not such that from those 36 For Flandrensis own understanding of the fallacies mentioned in the arguments that follow, see Dominic of Flanders, In divi Thomae Aquinatis fallaciarum opus perutiles quaestiones, qq. 9 (equivocation), 14 (figure of speech), 17 (accident), 19 (ignoratio elenchi), and 20 (begging the question) (In d. Thomae Aquinatis commentaria super libris Posteriorum Analyticorum Aristotelis, quaestiones perutiles, ed. Venice, 1587, 344a-347b, 359a-362a, 367a-369b, 371b-373a, 373a-374a). 37 See Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 9 (ed. cit., 151a). He also argues that the minor premise fails by the fallacies of begging the question, figure of speech, and accident (151a-b). Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 192 D Ettore two concepts is constituted a third, composite, concept that is abstracted from both.38 Flandrensis argument grants that an intellect can have one concept of real being, whether that is real categorical being or real being common to God and to creatures; however, this concept is only one proportionally. The CDAs minor premise treats the concept of being through which a person is certain that something is a being in the same way as it treats the concept about which the person is uncertain that the thing in question is created or uncreated, or substance or accident. Yet according to Flandrensis, the certain and doubtful person is certain about being taken proportionally, but not certain about being taken absolutely or without proportion. The minor premise generates the conclusion by missing this shift in the signification of the word beingi.e., a shift from its merely proportionally one signification across the categories, or its proportional signification of God and creatures, to its absolute signification of one category, or its absolute signification of either God or creatures exclusively. As noted above in the case of Flandrensis appeal to proportional unity against the major premise, Flandrensis argument here presumes his doctrine of signification through a concept with proportional unity, which Scotus does not share. Consequently, this reply to the minor premise suffices to show that Flandrensis (or others who hold that a single concept can have primary and secondary significations that have unity of proportion) need not regard the 38 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 9 (ed. cit., 151a): Similiter minor peccat, secundum fallaciam aequivocationis ex parte entis Si vero loquamur de ente quod immediate dividitur in decem praedicamenta, vel de ente quod dividitur in Deum et creaturas, hoc potest intelligi dupliciter. Uno modo, accipiendo ens pro suo proprio et primario significato tantum, non simul intelligendo significatum secundarium. Ens enim quod praedicatur de Deo, omnia alia nomina, significant primo et proprie divinam essentiam, participative vero perfectiones creaturarum. Similiter ens reale creatum, quod dividitur in decem praedicamenta, significat primo, et principaliter, et immediate ipsam substantiam, et ex consequenti sive secundario ipsum accidens, sic autem, impossible est quod intellectus noster sit certus de aliquo quod sit ens, ignorando an sit substantia, cognitis significationibus terminorum, imo contradictionem implicat. Alio modo, possumus loqui de ente secundum quod extendit se ad suum secundarium significatum, extensione proportionis, non abstractionis, et sic intellectus potest esse certus de aliquo quod sit ens, videlicet substantia vel accidens, ignorando tamen an esset substantia determinate vel accidens. Non tamen propter hoc oportet ponere conceptum unum unitate univocationis, sed solum unum unitate proportionis. Conceptus enim substantiae et conceptus accidentis sunt unus unitate analogiae, qui importatur nomine entis, non quod ex illis duobus conceptibus constituatur unus tertius conceptus compositus ex illis duobus qui sit abstractus ab ambobus. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 193 CDA as demonstrating the univocity of being. As with the unity-based argument against the major premise, however, a follower of Scotus need not accept Flandrensis reply to the minor premise as long as their differences persist over the signification of a single concept and proportional unity. In the final portion of his reply to objection 9, Flandrensis gives examples of things that are outside the essences of (i.e., accidental to) different modes of being and appeals once again to a non-univocal mode of logical unity: Whence, inhering relates to an accident as a certain relation [habitudo], but not as belonging to the essence of an accident, as they themselves [i.e., the Scotists] claim; also similarly, not inhering relates to substance, because the negation of inherence cannot belong to the formality of something positive. But nevertheless such a certain concept, with respect to inhering or not inhering, not only can be had concerning being taken in common (it having been conceded that such a being can have one concept), but one can have a certain concept of this special being [] without knowing whether it inheres or does not inhere, and so there is variation of the essential concept in the accidental. For it does not follow, Being has one concept, therefore being is univocal, just as it does not follow, It is an animal, therefore it is a man. For one applies to more than one by the unity of univocation, as is clear from the fifth [book] of this [work], lecture 6. From which it is clear that the aforementioned argument, which among them [the Scotists] is reputed to be difficult and the Achilles, is weak and nothing, whatever may be the truth of the conclusion.39 As the reference to Summa divinae philosophiae V, question 6 (i.e., to his discussion of logical unity), indicates, Flandrensis criticism here assumes that 39 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 9 (ed. cit., 151b): Unde inhaerere se habet ad accidens sicut quaedam habitudo, non autem sicut id quod est de essentia accidentis, ut ipsimet asserunt, similiter etiam, non inhaerere se habet ad substantiam: quia negatio inhaerentiae non potest esse de formalitate alicuius positivi. Sed tamen talis conceptus certus, respectu inhaerendi vel non inhaerendi, non solum potest haberi de ente communiter sumpto, concesso quod tale ens possit habere unum conceptum. Sed de hoc ente speciali, puta de terna dimensione, potest haberi conceptus certus, ignorando utrum inhaereat, et non inhaereat, et sic ibi est variatio conceptus essentialis in accidentale. Non enim sequitur: Ens habet unum conceptum, ergo univocum, sicut non sequitur: Est animal, ergo est homo. Unum enim in plus se habet quam unum unitate univocationis: ut patet quinto huius, lect. 6. Ex quo patet quod ratio praedicta, quae apud eos difficilis reputatur, et achilles, debilis et nulla est, quicquid sit de conclusionis veritate. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 194 D Ettore a single concept can have proportional unity in addition to numerical unity and the univocal modes of logical unity (generic and specific). The examples of how inherence relates to the essential concepts of accidents and of threedimensional serve to continue the argument that the CDAs minor premise mistakes what is accidental to a concept for what is essential. Since inherence is outside the concept of accidental being and varies it, one can be certain that something is an accident and uncertain if it inheres. But it would be a fallacy to conclude that the concept accidental being is essentially common and univocal to inhering and non-inhering accidents. Likewise, since inherence is outside the concept of three-dimensional being, one can be certain that something is three-dimensional without being certain that it inheres, and, consequently, it would be a fallacy to conclude that three-dimensionality is univocally common where it inheres and where it does not inhere.40 Given Flandrensis account of logical unity, both univocation and analogy are outside of the concept of unity. Hence, he proposes that it is a fallacy to infer that the concept of being common to substance and accidents, God and creatures, is one by the unity of univocation rather than by the unity of analogy on the grounds that ones intellect can be certain through this concept that something is a being, while remaining uncertain whether the thing is a substance or an accident, created or uncreated. Having found the major premise and the proof of the minor premise fallacious, Flandrensis concludes thatwhatever might be the truth of the matterScotus argument fails to live up to its reputation among the Scotists as a strong and even decisive proof of the univocity of being. 4 Flandrensis vs the Thomists As has been seen, Dominic of Flanders reply to the CDA draws on an understanding of logical unity that permits primary and secondary signification through a single ratio, an understanding of logical unity that is foreign to Scotus. In fact, Flandrensis doctrine of logical unity brings him into conflict with other Thomists over the unity of the concept of being. Within Summa divinae philosophiae IV, question 2, articles 3-6, Flandrensis identifies a range of positions held by Thomists on the unity of the concept of being, each one developed in response to Scotus and having no common points beyond contradicting Scotus conclusion about the univocity of being. 40 On non-inhering dimensive quantity, see the discussion of Eucharistic accidents in Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae III, q. 77, a. 2. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 195 The position closest to Scotus own is addressed in article 5, Whether there can be some concept of being, either analogous or univocal, that is separate from the concept of all beings and common through abstraction.41 In the language adopted in the article, Scotus univocally common concept is separate from the concepts proper to the categories, etc. Argument 14 of article 5 features a modified version of the CDA: Further, the intellect can be certain that something is a being without knowing whether it is a substance. Therefore, there is a separate concept of being, at least an analogous [one].42 As reported by Flandrensis, this argument belongs to an Archbishop Antonius, the Dominican Antonio de Carlenis of Naples, archbishop of Amalfi (1460).43 The latter concluded from the CDA that Scotus rightly affirmed that the concept of being about which he was certain was separate from the proper concepts of substantial being, accidental being, and so on, about which he was doubtful. The archbishop refrained, however, from drawing the further conclusion that this separate concept is univocal, rather than analogous, to substance, etc.44 On Flandrensis account, Antonio de Carlenis grants too much to Scotus by accepting a separate concept of being. In his reply to argument 14, Flandrensis reaffirms his own position: Although our intellect can be certain that something is a being, that is, a substance or an accident, and not know whether any determinate member is a substance, on these grounds one does not have to affirm a separate concept, but rather one has to concede that being signifies by its own 41 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 5 (ed. cit., 154b): Utrum sit dabilis conceptus aliquis entis, sive analogus, sive univocus, qui sit praecisus a conceptu omnium entium, et communis, per abstractionem. 42 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 5, ob. 14 (ed. cit., 155b): Praeterea, intellectus potest esse certus de aliquo quod sit ens, ignorando an sit substantia. Igitur entis est conceptus praecisus, saltem analogus. 43 See Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 5, ad 14 (ed. cit., 159a). Other references in the text establish the identity of the archbishop, a master of theology and author of some questions on the Metaphysics. See Lohr, Medieval Latin Aristotle Commentaries: Authors A-F, 365, and the introduction to Antonius de Carlenis, O.P.: Four Questions on the Subalternation of Sciences, ed. S.J. Livesey (Philadelphia, 1994), ix-xxxv. 44 Flandrensis Thomist critic, Chrysostom Iavelli, will make a similar argument. He maintains that the separate concept is not univocal, because it is unequally participated by substance, etc. See Chrysostom Iavellus, In libros Metaphysicos Aristotelis IV, q. 1 (Wittenberg, 1609, esp. 102). Thomas de Vio Cajetan demonstrates awareness of this position and lists it third among three positions on analogy that he rejects at the outset of De nominum analogia, c. 1, n. 1 (Scripta philosophica, ed. P.N. Zammit, Rome, 1934, 3-4). Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 196 D Ettore unique concept not just substance, but substance with accident, the one indeed primarily and the other secondarily, as was said.45 In the following article, Flandrensis shows that he knows of two methods besides his own that are employed by Thomists to avoid admitting (like Scotus and Antonio) a separate concept of being.46 One method says that the diverse concepts of being have unity of disjunction. Flandrensis attributes this first view to the early fourteenth-century Thomist Hervaeus Natalis. Flandrensis had discussed Hervaeus position already in article 3, in reply to argument 9, while raising objections to the minor premise of the CDA: Some affirm a disjunctive concept of being, about which they concede that the intellect can be certain while being in doubt concerning substance and accident taken individually, as is clear from Hervaeus in his Quodlibeta, quodlibet II,47 where he says: A disjunctive concept can be certain, while the truth of each part of the disjunction taken per se is in doubt. Thus, I can be certain that Socrates stands or sits and not know which of those parts is true, and, nevertheless, to stand or to sit does not express one simple concept that essentially corresponds to some thing.48 Disjunctive unity does not belong to individual concepts, but is a unity between two or more concepts joined in the disjunction. Hence, the appeal to 45 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 5, ad 14 (ed. cit., 159a): Licet etiam intellectus noster potest esse certus de aliquo quod sit ens, id est substantia, vel accidens, et ignorare de quolibet membro determinato an sit substantia, non propter hoc oportet ponere conceptum praecisum, sed bene oportet concedere quod ens significat suo unico conceptu, non solum substantiam, sed substantiam cum accidente, unum quidem primario, et aliud secundario, sicut dictum est. 46 See Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 6 (ed. cit., 160a-b). On this passage, see E.J. Ashworth, Suarez on the Analogy of Being: Some Historical Background, Vivarium 33 (1995), 68-70. 47 See Hervaeus Natalis, Quodlibet II, q. 7 (ed. cit., f. 45v). 48 Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae IV, q. 2, a. 3, ad 9 (ed. cit., 151a): Aliqui tamen ponunt conceptum disiunctum entis, de quo concedunt quod intellectus potest esse certus, ipso existente dubio de substantia, et accidente, sigillatim sumptis, ut patet per Herveum in suis quodlibetis, quodlibeto 2. Ubi sic dicit. Conceptus disiunctus potest esse certus: dubia veritate cuiuslibet partis disiunctae, per se acceptae: unde possum esse certus quod Sortes stat vel sedet, et ignorare quae illarum partium sit vera: et tamen stare vel sedere non dicit unum conceptum simplicem, essentialiter alicui rei convenientem. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 197 disjunctive unity allows Hervaeus to deny, in the face of the CDA, that there is any concept of being with simple unity.49 The second Thomist method for rejecting a separate concept of being belongs to John Versor. Versor proposes that there are ten different concepts of being proper to the different categories. These ten concepts have unity of analogy because one among them (i.e., the concept proper to substance) is included in all the others.50 The analogous unity among these ten concepts could also be called unity of attribution.51 The key point of difference between Hervaeus disjunctive unity and Versors unity of analogy as contrasted with Flandrensis own view is that Hervaeus and Versor affirm multiple concepts of being that properly signify the diverse modes of being. According to Flandrensis, however, not only is there no concept of being separate from the concepts of substance and accidents, but there is no concept of accidental being separate from the concept of substantial being. Rather, being is only signified through the concept that primarily signifies substantial being.52 So, whereas Flandrensis rejects Antonio de Carlenis position for giving too much to Scotus, Flandrensis rejects the positions of Hervaeus Natalis and John Versor for not granting Scotus enough.53 49 Hervaeus mentions that some say that there is analogy where one thing does not belong equally, but only proportionally, to what contains it. He rejects this positionwhich at least resembles the one that Flandrensis will defendon the grounds that it would make the names of genera analogous when said of species. For Hervaeus, it is attributive unity between diverse concepts that grounds analogy and distinguishes it from what he calls essential univocity. See Hervaeus Natalis, Quodlibet II, q. 7 (ed. cit., f. 44ra-b). 50 See Iohannes Versor, Quaestiones super metaphysicam Aristotelis IV, q. 1 (ed. cit., f. 25vb). 51 Although Flandrensis focuses on Hervaeus use of unity of disjunction, Hervaeus overall position is quite similar to Versors insofar as both hold that there are ten distinct concepts of being corresponding to each category, and both hold that each concept is one by its relation to the concept of substance. Hervaeus calls this unity unity of attribution. See Hervaeus Natalis, Quodlibet II, q. 7 (ed. cit., f. 46va). 52 See especially Flandrensis, Summa divinae philosophiae, IV, q. 2, a. 6 (ed. cit., 160a-b): ens significet, unico conceptu, et unica impositione, substantiam et accidens. Significat enim substantiam cum habitudine ad accidens, habitudo autem non potest significari: cum non possit intelligi, sine eo. Ad quod determinatur: ideo significat secundario accidens. Et talis conceptus entis non est praecisus a conceptu substantiae, sed est proprius conceptus substantiae, cum alio modo significandi et concipiendi, videlicet cum concretione et habitudine ad accidens. 53 Scotus himself responded to criticisms of the CDA that rely on attributive or disjunctive unity: Iohannes Duns Scotus, Ordinatio I, d. 8, pars 1, q. 3, nn. 62-69 (Opera Omnia III, ed. C. Bali et al., Vatican City, 1956, 181-184). See also Scotus argument that unity of attribution contains univocation (n. 83, 191). I have not found Flandrensis directly noting these Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access 198 D Ettore Conclusion With the Certain and Doubtful Argument, John Duns Scotus challenged his opponents to account for how someones intellect could be at once certain that something is a being and yet uncertain of whether that same thing belongs to this or that mode of being. Scotus own explanation affirms that there is one separate, and therefore univocal, concept of being that is predicated across the categories and about God and creatures. Flandrensis denies Scotus inference from the unity of the concept of being to the univocity of the concept of being on the grounds that, even if the CDA proves that there is one concept of being, it fails to prove that this one concept of being has the unity characteristic of univocity rather than the lesser unity of proportion or analogy. Flandrensis rejection of the CDA rests on his disagreement with Scotus over how to interpret unity as understood in its numerical, generic, specific, and proportional or analogous modes. Flandrensis holds that a single concept can be predicated in each of these modes of logical unity, and Scotus specifically excludes predicating a single concept with proportional unity. I think that it should be granted that, if indeed Scotus does misunderstand or overlook proportional unity in the way that Flandrensis charges him, then, as an argument for univocity against analogy, the CDA is weak and nothing. Yet, insofar as Flandrensis neglects to explain why his own doctrine of proportional unity is to be preferred over Scotus, Flandrensis fails to make a case that would be compelling to Scotus. Flandrensis criticism of the CDA serves to show that assumptions about logical unity, including proportional unity, underlie the rival positions on univocity and analogy between the schools of Thomas Aquinas and John Duns Scotus, as well as within the school of Thomas Aquinas itself. Hence, evaluation of the merits of these rival positions on univocity and analogy requires understanding their positions on logical unity. I have not found any systematic treatment of Scotus doctrine of proportional unity, nor have I seen it discussed in contemporary treatments of Scotus doctrine of the univocity of being.54 Flandrensis own doctrine concerning the proportional unity of the concept of arguments from Scotus, but they could in part explain why Flandrensis adopts a different approach from his predecessors Hervaeus and Versor. 54 The closest that I have seen to someone treating this point is in Joshua P. Hochschilds discussion of Cajetans doctrine of proportional unity in The Semantics of Analogy: Rereading Cajetans De Nominum Analogia (Notre Dame, 2010), 139. Still, Hochschild discusses Cajetans doctrine of proportional unity as responding to Scotus definition of univocity, and not to Scotus own discussion of proportional unity. Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Dominic of Flanders Critique of John Duns Scotus 199 being, as was shown above, led him into conflict with other Thomists, including Hervaeus Natalis and John Versor. Flandrensis doctrine would prove to be influential on, if not convincing to, his contemporary Thomists.55 I hope that greater light will come to be shed on the dispute over the analogy or univocity of being through investigation of the dispute over logical unity, especially the unity of proportion or analogy. 55 Within a few years of the first publication of the Summa divinae philosophiae, another representative of the Dominican Bologna studium, Thomas di Vio Cajetan, defended a position between Flandrensis and Versors, proposing with Versor that there are diverse concepts of being for the diverse categories, yet attributing proportional unity, rather than attributive unity, to these concepts, such that there is one concept of being proportionally. See especially Cajetan, De nominum analogia, c. 6, n. 70 (ed. Zammit, 57). Vivarium 56 (2018) 176-199 Downloaded from Brill.com03/02/2021 04:20:23PM via free access Brills Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages Edited by Gert Melville, Technische Universitt Dresden, Martial Staub, University of Sheffield English edition supervised by Francis G. Gentry and Tim Barnwell December 2016 ISBN 978 90 04 29315 1 Hardback (2 Volumes) List price EUR 350.- / US$ 420.The two-volume Brills Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages offers an accessible yet engaging coverage of medieval European history and culture, c. 500-c. 1500, in a series of themed articles, taking an interdisciplinary and comparative approach. Presenting a broad range of topics current in research, the encyclopedia is dedicated to all aspects of medieval life, organized in eight sections: Society; Faith and Knowledge; Literature; Fine Arts and Music; Economy; Technology; Living Environments and Conditions; and Constitutive Historical Events and Regions. This thematic structure makes the encyclopedia a true reference work for Medieval Studies as a whole. It is accessible and concise enough for quick reference, while also providing a solid grounding in a new topic with a good level of detail, since many of its articles are longer than traditional encyclopedia entries. The encyclopedia is supported by an extensive bibliography, updated with the most recent works and adapted to suit the needs of an Anglophone audience. Brills Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages is a unique work, and invaluable equally for research and for teaching. Anyone interested in the art, architecture, economy, history, language, law, literature, music, religion, or science of the Middle Ages, will find the encyclopedia an indispensible resource. This is an English translation of the second edition (2013) of the well-known Germanlanguage Enzyklopdie des Mittelalters, published by Primus Verlag / Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. 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... ARTICLE Ministry to Catholic LGBTQ Youth: $&DOOIRU2SHQQHVVDQG$IUPDWLRQ by Arthur David Canales How can we proclaim Christ to a generation that is changing? We must be careful not to administer a vaccine against faith to them. . . . If someone is gay and seeks the Lord with good will, who am I to judge? . . . I remember the case of a very sad little girl who finally confided to her teacher the reason for her state of mind: My mothers girlfriend doesnt like me. Pope Francis, conversation en route to World Youth Day, July 29, 2013, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil P ope Franciss remarks above direct attention to some difficult and virtually undiscussed concerns about the way the Catholic Church is to minister to LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning) youth. Concerns regarding LGBTQ youth range from serious theological disagreements about ecclesial teachings to ignorance among youth ministers about the situations that these adolescents face. LGBTQ youth often experience fear, shame, and the hostility of peers and parents.1 At a recent national ministry conference, I presented a paper on LGBTQ youth and it seemed that nothing was more controversial and potentially divisive than the issue of homosexuality. Ministers from various denominations stated that this is the most pressing Arthur D. Canales, DMin, is Asand continuous issue in their churches. This article contends that Catholic sociate Professor of Pastoral LGBTQ youth deserve, and should expect, proper and competent pastoral Theology and Ministry at Marian University (Indianapolis). He has care from their parish youth ministry. The purpose of this article is twofold: been involved in youth ministry (1) to elaborate on the ministry to Catholic LGBTQ youth in the United for thirty years and is an adoStates and (2) to propose a more open and affirming Catholic youth ministry lescent ministry scholar and an that addresses LGBTQ issues and concerns. The question of ministering to authority on Catholic youth minCatholic LGBTQ youth is both a practical theological matter and a youth istry. He has written over thirty articles and two books on adolesministry dilemma that merits serious attention. cents and youth ministry. The methodology of this article is (1) descriptive, which is theological and theoretical in nature; and (2) prescriptive, which is pastoral in scope. The essay begins with a brief discussion of the terminology, then moves to a discussion of the theological and moral conundrum facing ministry to LGBTQ youth. Next, it examines the failures of ecclesial documents to address the quandary, and finally, it addresses the need to become more open and affirming in the ways of ministering to LGBTQ youth. 1 L. E. Durso and G. J. Gates, Serving Our Youth: Findings from a National Survey of Service Providers Working with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth Who Are Homeless or At Risk of Becoming Homeless (Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute with True Colors Fund and The Palette Fund, 2012), 4. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 60 Situating the Discussion Research suggests that views on same-sex relationships vary by Christian denomination and by religious practices.2 Currently, mainline Catholicism ministers to LGBTQ youth as teenagers with eyes wide shut. The ministerial presence currently available to the young church (a phrase used in youth ministry that refers to high school adolescents ages fourteen through eighteen), particularly to Catholic LGBTQ youth, is almost non-existent.3 The overwhelming majority of Catholic youth ministries in the United States do not cater to, actively attract, or tolerate LGBTQ youth. The Catholic Church in general, and youth ministry specifically, could be and should be doing more to reach out and minister to LGBTQ youth. Catholic LGBTQ youth need a place in the church where they can be accepted, their gifts empowered, their faith and spirituality nurtured, and their sexuality supported. Therefore, this essay is an invitation for US Catholic Bishops, Catholic pastors, and Catholic youth ministers (1) to be more hospitable, gracious, and open-minded with the LGBTQ youth community and (2) to have LGBTQ Catholics present at the table for dialogue and critique about the lack of advocacy and pastoral care in Catholic youth ministry. This essay hopes to encourage youth ministers and adolescent catechists to minister to, with, by, and for LGBTQ young people, as is so beautifully articulated in the original Catholic youth ministry document, A Vision of Youth Ministry.4 Typically, the topic, discussion, and rhetoric surrounding sexual minorities and the Catholic Church centers around three camps of theological thought: (1) traditional/conservative, who are those theologians who adhere to the Magisteriums5 position on homosexual acts with little or no pastoral concern for the LGBTQ person; (2) mediating/moderate, who are those theologians who do not challenge magisterial teaching on homosexual acts, but place a greater emphasis on the pastoral ramifications for the LGBTQ person; and (3) revisionist/progressive, who are those theologians who openly challenge the magisterial teaching on LGBTQ persons.6 Perhaps a revisionist perspective is needed concerning this delicate issue, in order to allow an open-minded approach toward LGBTQ youth. All Catholic people--LGBTQ youth included--share in the same Catholic identity and dignity as heterosexual Catholics, which is shared by virtue of baptism, sealed at confirmation, and nourished at the Eucharistic table.7 Defining the Terminology It is beneficial for the readers to learn the basic terminology for this study. The language will also give a general Catholic audience common ground and a common vocabulary to speak from, as well as the proper understanding of the terminology, such that it can be incorporated into future Catholic documents. LGBT refers to individuals who consider themselves as either lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. Adolescents who claim the LGBT sexual status are considered minorities more specifically, sexual minority teenagersby the American Academy of Pediatrics.8 In recent literature surrounding LGBT youth, the letter Q has been added, 2 L. J. Francis, B. G. Fawcett, and J. Linkletter, The Sexual Attitudes of Religiosity Committed Canadian Youth within the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches, Journal of Youth & Theology 12, no. 1 (2013): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24055093-90000057. 3 Samuel Sanabria and Joffrey S. Suprina, Addressing Spirituality when Counseling Gay Boys, Adolescents, and Men, in Counseling Gay Men, Adolescents, and Boys: A Strength-Based Guide for Helping Professionals and Educators, ed. Michael M. Kocet (New York: Routledge Group, 2014), 5455. 4 Department of [Catholic] Education, A Vision of Youth Ministry (Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 1976), 67. 5 The Magisterium (Latin for office of the teacher), in the Catholic Church, refers to the authoritative teaching of the universal church, which belongs to the whole college of bishops (Catholic bishops around the world) who are united with the bishop of Romethe presiding pope. 6 M. J. Maher and L. M. Sever, What Educators in Catholic Schools Might Expect When Addressing Gay and Lesbian Issues: A Study of Needs and Barriers, Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education 4, no. 3 (2007): 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J367v04n03_06. 7 Gerald D. Coleman, Homosexuality: Catholic Teaching and Pastoral Practice (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1996), 110. 8 D. A. Levine, Office-Based Care for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning Youth, Pediatrics 132, no. 1 (2013): 19899. http://dx.doi. org/10.1542/peds.2013-1282. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 61 referring to the word questioning, and can be appended at times to the acronym LGBT to read LGBTQ. Questioning refers to adolescents who are still discerning their sexual orientation and/or struggling with their sexual identity. The letter Q can also represent the word queer, which has become more popular in homosexual literature and in queer theory (explained below). Therefore, it is not uncommon to see the acronym LGBTQQ, which includes a second Q-letter to represent queer understanding. The second Q-letter will not be part of the parameters of this work. Understanding sexual orientation is an extremely important part of human development. According to the American Psychological Association, the sexual orientation of a person is an enduring, individual pattern of emotional, romantic, and physical (sexual) arousal and attraction to persons of the opposite gender or sex, the same gender or sex, or to either genders or more than one sex.9 These sexual attractions toward other human beings are generally categorized under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, although the category asexuality does exist, which is the lack or romantic or physical attraction toward others. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. A lesbian youth is an adolescent female who self-identifies as a person who has sexual tendencies, overtures, and attraction toward other females and women.10 A gay youth is an adolescent male who categorizes himself as a person who has sexual tendencies, overtures, and attraction toward other males and men.11 Conversely, bisexual youth are teenagers who self-identify their romantic and physical attraction, and their emotional and/or spiritual intimacy, toward people of both sexes and genders.12 Transgender and queer youth. The term transgender is a broad term that covers various groups. It can include transsexuals, cross-dressers, drag queens, people who are intersex (people born with both male and female genitals), and straight people. Being transgender is not necessarily a reflection of sexual orientation. All transsexuals are transgender, but not all transgender people are transsexual.13 Young people who describe themselves as transgender are those persons who exhibit gender-nonconforming characteristics and actions)that is, those individuals who transcend their typical gender paradigms.14 Many transsexual persons are in transitioneither from hormone therapy and/or cosmetic surgeryto live in a gender role of choice, but have not undergone sexual reassignment surgery.15 The term queer was once a derogatory term used by heterosexuals; today, the term has become increasingly popular with LGBTQ youth as an empowering term that is consciously used as a way of reclaiming their uniqueness and power as outsiders and as sexual minorities. In past decades, and sometimes today, the term queer is associated with transgender persons.16 In academic homosexual literature the word queer is used to frame 9 American Psychological Association, Answers to Your Questions: For a Better Understanding of Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2008), 12. 10 Levine, Office-Based Care, 199. Although an adolescent female may self-report being a lesbian, she will still occasionally have sex with males, because with teenagers sexual behavior does not necessarily equal sexual identity. 11 Levine, Office-Based Care, 199. 12 Michael J. Bayly, Creating Environments for LGBT Students: A Catholic Schools Perspective (New York: Harrington Park Press, 2007), 18. Similar to lesbian youth, a gay adolescent male may self-recognize being gay, but he may sporadically engage in sex with females, for the reason that sexual conduct is not tantamount to sexual distinctiveness. 13 Kelley Huegel, The Survival Guide for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning Teens (Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing, 2011), 206. 14 A. H. Grossman, and A. R. DAugelli, Transgender Youth: Invisible and Vulnerable, Journal of Homosexuality 51, no. 1 (2006): 112. http://dx.doi. org/10.1300/J082v51n01_06. 15 Bayly, Creating Environments, 21. 16 Bayly, Creating Environments, 20. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 62 and sustain queer theory.17 Knowing these terms and the ways they are expressed is helpful in guiding the conversation with LGBTQ youth, and it is important for Catholic ministers to learn and feel comfortable using these terms. The Theological Quandary and Moral Conundrum The theological quandary regarding LGBTQ youth is directly enmeshed in the rhetoric surrounding the doctrinal and theoretical aspects of Catholic teachings on homosexuality. Part of the quandary is the obfuscation and misunderstanding of a pastoral plan with and for Catholic LGBTQ youth. The Catholic Church has not directly written anything concerning LGBTQ youth in its documents on youth ministry, which is a particularly peculiar phenomenon in this day and age. The Catholic Church has written a few specific documents (addressed below) on the pastoral care of persons of homosexual inclination, and although written with empathy and compassion, they lack teeth and conviction, and offer precious little by way of advocacy and pastoral care for LGBTQ youth.18 Nevertheless, traditional Catholic teaching on homosexuality is warranted. The Catholic Church teaching on the subject is clear. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (hereafter CCC) states: t
All human beings are created in the image and likeness of God, known as imago Dei (no. 299); t
Love is the fundamental and innate vocation of every human being (no. 2392); t
All human beings deserve to be treated with dignity and respect, which upholds their innate integrity (nos. 2284-2317); t
Sexuality is a gift that is ordered toward conjugal love (no. 2360); t
Sexuality affects all aspects of the human person in the unity of the body and the soul (nos. 2332, 2361); t
Every person should acknowledge and accept his or her sexual identity (no. 2333); t
Homosexuality refers to relations between men or women who experience an exclusive or predominant sexual attraction towards persons of the same sex (no. 2357); and t
All Christians are called to various forms of chastity and to remain chaste outside of matrimony (no. 2348).19 These points represent a rudimentary understanding of the churchs teaching on human sexuality and homosexuality. 17 Y. Taylor, S. Hines, and M. E. Casey, Theorizing Intersectionality and Sexuality (New York: Palgrave MacMillian, 2011), 3. Queer theory attempts to avoid analysis of asymmetrical power relations with its focus on the destabilization of categories, often negating the privileges and (dis)advantages allowing and denying such inclinations. Queer theory has been on the rise in academic literature, especially in the fields of psychology, sociology, and feminism. 18 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1986); United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Always Our Children: A Pastoral Message to Parents of Homosexual Children and Suggestions for Pastoral Ministers (Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing, 1997); United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Ministry to Persons with a Homosexual Inclination: Guidelines for Pastoral Care (Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing, 2006). None of these documents is written to advocate a particular agenda or to endorse a homosexual lifestyle or way of life, which probably does not engender a warm reception from the homosexual community. 19 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2nd ed. (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1997), nos. 299, 2332, 2333, 2392, 22842317, 2360, 2361, 2357, 2348. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 63 There is nothing unclear about these ecclesial doctrines. The theological quandary and the complexities for practical theology and pastoral ministry are statements such as this: Basing itself on sacred Scripture, which presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity, tradition has always declared that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered. They are contrary to the natural law.20 Wording such as intrinsically disordered tends to be divisive instead of binding, and it is offensive and alarming for homosexual persons. Besides being extremely un-pastoral, the phrase intrinsically disordered, which applies to the homosexual genital acts, can easily be misconstrued by thinking that the message is that all homosexual people are intrinsically disordered people, which is slippery slope.21 As Catholic moral theologian Stephen J. Pope notes, The Magisteriums message about gay sexual orientation is powerfully stigmatizing and dehumanizing.22 The wording utilized by these ecclesial pronouncements presents a theological quandary for pastoral ministry because it is polarizing and defaming. Moreover, describing a persons sexuality as gravely disordered would seem only to stimulate suspicion, provoke mistrust, and cause alienation among LGBTQ people. Pope further adds, The Magisteriums teaching about homosexuality stands in tension with its affirmation that each [LGBTQ] person is created in the imago Dei.23 This tension represents a moral conundrum for practitioners of pastoral care and youth ministry who are charged with ministering to the total person: mind, body, and spirit. The Christian custom regarding sex before marriage or outside committed marriage is seen as fornication and it is considered morally wrong and sinful (Gal 5:1921). The parameters of this article do not allow for a full discussion on sexual morality. Nevertheless, it must be noted that the traditional or conservative view regarding sexual relations is abstinence and chastity. Abstinence is the avoidance of a particular pleasure (food, drink, sexual intercourse) for a determined length of time, usually on certain days.24 Chastity is a virtue and a Christian lifestyle. Chastity is the successful integration of human sexuality within a person and thus the persons interior life (spirituality) is in unity with the outer life (sexuality).25 Hence all Christians are called to chastity; even married couples and spouses are chaste nonvirgins.26 A Catholic moderate view of sex before marriage or outside of marriage would indicate that sex between two committed and consenting adults is ideally based on genuine mutual respect, companionship, and love.27 A Catholic revisionist/progressive view of sex before or outside of marriage would maintain that sexual encounters cause no unjust harm, involve free consent, mutuality of sexual desire, and equality of personhood, power, and status.28 Monogamy is still the gold standard! Even a Catholic revisionist perspective would disapprove of so-called causal sex or one-night stands between uncommitted couples. The rationale for bringing up these three views of sex before or outside of marriage is to demonstrate the theological and moral dilemma that pastoral practitioners such as youth ministers must face, especially with LGBTQ adolescents. Despite charged emotions, personal opinions, troublesome psychological theories, and conservative theologies regarding homosexuality, the larger issue remains: LGBTQ youth deserve, and should expect, proper and competent 20 John Paul, CCC, no. 2357. 21 S. J. Pope, The Magisteriums Arguments Against Same Sex Marriage: An Ethical Analysis and Critique, Theological Studies 65, no. 3 (2004): 549. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004056390406500303. 22 Pope, Magisteriums Arguments, 550. 23 Pope, Magisteriums Arguments, 550. 24 John Paul, CCC, no. 2337. 25 John Paul, CCC, no. 2337. 26 Vincent J. Genovesi, In Pursuit of Love: Catholic Morality and Human Sexuality, 2nd ed. (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1996), 136. 27 Genovesi, In Pursuit,, 17175. 28 Margaret A. Farley, Just Love: A Framework for Christian Sexual Ethics (New York: Continuum, 2006), 21623. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 64 pastoral care from their parish youth ministry. If the Catholic Church is not careful, it may be criticized as suffering from LGBTQ ephebiphobia (the fear of teenagers) towards sexual minority adolescents.29 Official Ecclesiastical Documents that Address LGBTQ Youth The three major Catholic Church documents concerning ministering to LGBTQ people are (1) the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faiths document entitled Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons,30 (2) the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops document entitled Ministry to Persons with a Homosexual Inclination: Guidelines for Pastoral Care,31 and (3) another USCCB document titled Always my Children: A Pastoral Message to Parents of Homosexual Children and Suggestions for Pastoral Ministers.32 All of these documents call for the church institutions, organizations, and ministriesto have an empathetic heart and to provide pastoral care to the homosexual community. However, the three documents provide little by way of real pastoral care and seems out-of-touch with LGBTQ reality. These three documents leave most LGBTQ people disappointed by their lack of pastoral concentration; the documents smack of institutional control as well as exacerbating cultural barriers.33 It appears that neither the Magisterium nor the United States Catholic Bishops consulted critically or dialogued pastorally with anyone from the LGBTQ community.34 The 1997 U.S. Catholic Bishops document, Always my Children: A Pastoral Message to Parents of Homosexual Children and Suggestions for Pastoral Ministers, provides some reassurance for Catholic parents and recommends the following: 1. Accept and love yourselves as parents. 2. Do everything possible to continue demonstrating love for your child. 3. Urge your son or daughter to stay joined to the Catholic faith community. 4. Recommend that your son or daughter find a spiritual director/mentor. 5. Seek help for yourself, perhaps in the form of counseling, as you strive for understanding, acceptance, and inner peace. 6. Reach out in love and service to other parents struggling with a son or daughters homo sexuality. 7. Take advantage of opportunities for education and support. 8. Put your faith completely in God.35 29 Andrew Root and Kendra Creasy Dean, The Theological Turn in Youth Ministry (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books, 2011), 207. Ephebiphobia is the fear of teenagers and is very distinct from ephebophilia, the primary sexual desire and attraction of adolescents by adults. I am using the term in the context of the Church could be criticized as having ephebiphobia toward its homosexual teenagers. 30 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1986). 31 USCCB, Ministry to Persons. 32 USCCB, Always Our Children. 33 Maher and Sever, Educators in Catholic Schools, 83. 34 Bayly, Creating Environments, 85. 35 USCCB, Always Our Children, 6. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 65 These are fine words of wisdom, but they can also be applied to practically all Catholic parents, not only parents of LGBTQ youth. The 2006 U.S. Catholic Bishops document does not offer anything directly pertaining to LGBTQ youth except for this passing comment: Young people, in particular, need special encouragement and guidance, since the best way of helping young people is to aid them in not getting involved in homosexual relations or in the subculture in the first place, since these experiences create further obstacles.36 (Italics added.) Such a statement hardly constitutes pastoral care and offers no pastoral plan. The language of the document only creates further alienation and ostracization, which the majority of LGBTQ youth already experience. Questions loom large: Are we providing the best pastoral care to LGBTQ youth in our parishes/congregations? Are wethe church--doing enough to support, advocate, and minister to, with, by, and for LGBTQ adolescents? What are the best ways to minister with LGBTQ teenagers? The Catholic Church is merely conflating a pastoral plan with authentic ministry to the LGBTQ community. Moreover, Catholic youth ministry seems to be avoiding LGBTQ youth instead of advocating on their behalf, which is a substantial critique of Catholic youth ministry. Assessing Catholic Youth Ministry Documents Neither the original 1976 Vision of Youth Ministry (out of print and virtually out of use) nor the updated version, Renewing the Vision: A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry (hereafter RTV),37 mentions ministering to LGBTQ youth. The exclusion of addressing LGBTQ youth in these two youth ministry documents is a glaring oversight. RTV is the current benchmark and definitive standard for Catholic youth ministry in the United States. All Catholic youth ministries are strongly encouraged to adhere to its content and follow RTVs framework. RTV establishes the criteria and goals for youth ministry, which are expected to be integrated and implemented in Catholic parish youth ministries and Catholic school campus ministries in the United States. RTV is the principal pastoral tool that Catholic youth ministers utilize in their pastoral work with young people; unfortunately, there is absolutely nothing written in the document that addresses LGBTQ youth sexuality, issues, dilemmas, or situations. RTV provides Catholic youth ministers with eight components that are to help shape the youth curriculum and are to be integrated within the youth ministry. The components consist of the following: advocacy, catechesis, community life, evangelization, justice and service, leadership development, pastoral care, and prayer and worship. There are two possible sections in the RTV document where ministering to LGBTQ adolescents could have been integrated: the Component of Advocacy and the Component of Pastoral Care.38 RTV has beautifully written pages on advocacy with adolescents and pastoral care with teenagers, but nothing in those sections that specifically address the needs, issues, and dilemmas that LGBTQ youth encounter. RTV really misses a marvelous opportunity to address the concerns that LGBTQ youth experience on a daily basis. It will be valuable to examine these two ministry components regarding LGBTQ youth more closely. 36 USCCB, Ministry to Persons, 2122. 37 United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Renewing the Vision: A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry (Washington, DC: USCCB Publishing, 1997). 38 For more detailed information of the Ministry Components of Advocacy and of Pastoral Care, see RTV, 2628 and 4244. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 66 The Ministry of Advocacy for Catholic Teenagers Advocacy for juveniles is an important part of youth ministry that aids in the fight against economic and social forces that threaten adolescents and their families.39 The section on advocacy offers four points regarding the rights of Catholic teenagers: 1. Affirming and protecting the sanctity of human life as a gift from God and building societal respect for those who most need protection and supportthe unborn, the poor, the disadvantaged, the sick, and the elderly 2. Standing with and speaking on behalf of young people and their families on public issues that affect their lives, such as support for education, quality housing, employment opportunities, access to health care, safe neighborhoods, and availability of meaningful community activities and services 3. Empowering young people by giving them a voice and calling them to responsibility and accountability around the issues that affect them and their future 4. Developing partnerships and initiatives with leaders and concerned citizens from all sectors of the community to develop a shared vision and practical strategies for building a healthy community.40 This would have been an excellent place for the U.S. Catholic Bishops to provide three additional points: a fifth point about focusing on sexual development to all adolescents, a sixth point on practices and policies that will help young people avoid sexual discrimination, and a seventh point that reminds youth ministers that all peoplehomosexual or heterosexualare created in Gods image and likeness. It would have been pastorally prophetic if RTV would have added a few bullet points along these lines in this section of the document: t
Advocacy includes educating all adolescents on psychological development and sexual development, especially those teenagers who are thinking about engaging in sexual relations and those who are already engaged in sexual intimacy. t
Advocacy includes standing up for LGBTQ youth and engaging in policies and practices that eradicate discrimination of sexual minority young people and examine and analyze the practices that alienate LGBTQ youth. t
LGBTQ youth are created in imago Dei and deserve to be treated with dignity and respect and have a right to find a safe place to learn and thrive in their parishs youth ministry. Unfortunately, RTV fails to advocate for LGBTQ youth in the Component of Advocacy. The Ministry of Pastoral Care to Catholic Teenagers Pastoral care with teenagers is sine qua non for Catholic youth ministry! Without proper pastoral care healing and growth would not take place within adolescents, their peer relationships, and their families.41 The section on pastoral care is more developed than the section on advocacy, but it still lacks direct mention of ministering to LGBTQ youth. According to RTV, 39 USCCB, RTV, 27. 40 USCCB, RTV, 2728. 41 USCCB, RTV, 42. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 67 The ministry of pastoral care to adolescents involves promoting positive adolescent and family development through a variety of positive (preventative) strategies; caring for adolescents and families in crisis through support, counseling, and referral to appropriate community agencies; providing guidance as young people face life decisions and make moral choices; and challenging systems that are obstacles to positive development (advocacy). Pastoral care is most fundamentally a relationshipa ministry of compassionate presence.42 Again, these are caring words, but there is nothing that is ministry-specific to the needs of LGBTQ youth. In this section RTV lists nine points regarding pastoral care with youth, but one point in particular could have dealt specifically with LGBTQ youth, yet does not: Pastoral care fosters the spiritual development of young people, and the healthy integration of their sexuality and spirituality.43 This would have been a perfect location to address the sexual orientation of teenagers as well as connecting the sexuality of LGBTQ youth to their spirituality. It is certainly not unreasonable to connect sexuality to spirituality. This would have been an excellent place to add something along these lines in this section of the document: t
Pastoral Care is concerned about the total person; about the full expression of young peoples spirituality and sexuality. t
Integrating our sexualitywhether heterosexual or homosexualinto genuine loving relationships is a matter of greatest importance for identity formation. t
LGBTQ youth deserve and should expect competent and genuine pastoral care. Unfortunately, RTV fails to offer quality pastoral care to LGBTQ youth in the Component of Pastoral Care. Of course, hindsight is 20/20 vision, but perhaps it is time for a revised and updated version of RTV: a new version with a fresh perspective that meets the needs of all adolescents today.44 The reality is that the typical mainstream model of parish youth ministry does not reach LGBTQ youth because of social, cultural, religious, and sexual differences.45 This is one of the many reasons RTV needs updatingknowing full well, of course, that Catholic hierarchy and ecclesial documents are more likely to follow the pioneering ministry or groundbreaking theology rather than setting ministry policy outright. Nevertheless, a new and improved ecclesial youth ministry document is in the best interest of Catholic ministrya version that clearly advocates for LGBTQ youth and one that clearly states the pastoral care needs of sexual minority adolescents. The Magisteriums document and the three U.S. Catholic Bishops documents mentioned above fail to provide an authentic fundament option to LGBTQ youth like that which other vulnerable and marginalized groups receive. Therefore, in a real way, the Catholic Church obfuscates a pastoral plan for LGBTQ young Catholics and offers generic platitudes, which are neither pastorally fruitful nor practically fulfilling. It is important that teenagers who are sexual minorities receive proper and competent pastoral care and feel that they have a voice and a place within the church. It is the role and responsibility of Catholic youth ministry to reach out and accept LGBTQ youth who can contribute to the vitality of the ministry, the church, and society. 42 USCCB, RTV, 42. 43 USCCB, RTV, 43. 44 Arthur David Canales, The Ten-Year Anniversary of Renewing the Vision: Reflection on Its Impact for Catholic Youth Ministry, New Theology Review 20, no. 2 (2007): 5869. 45 Matthew Vines, God and the Gay Christian (New YorkNY: Convergent Books, 2014), 2223. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 68 Becoming More Open and Affirming of Catholic LGBTQ Youth It would seem wise if Catholic youth ministry would become more deliberate and inclusive toward LGBTQ youth. Since the U.S. Catholic Bishops have called for Catholic youth ministry to be comprehensive,46 then Catholic youth ministries across the country are going to have to be a lot more systematic and intentional about ministering directly and becoming more open and affirming with LGBTQ youth. In an unpublished investigation surveying one hundred Catholic youth ministers in April 2014, the following data was revealed: 1. Many gifted youth ministers often feel helpless to truly advocate for LGBTQ youth. 2. Many youth ministers are in fear of losing their job if they came out and supported LGBTQ youth openly. 3. Some youth ministers feel that there would be repercussions for not following the letter of the law in the Catholic Catechism, 4. Other youth ministers are fearful of being fired by a conservative bishop because they are misperceived as pushing a ministry agenda too far by advocating for LGBTQ equality in Catholic youth ministry. 5. A few youth ministers simply do not feel comfortable approaching the issue due to a lack of understanding with regard to all the subtleties and nuances of LGBTQ youth.47 It is not uncommon for youth ministers to hear that Catholic parents say hurtful and emotionally damaging phrases to their homosexual teenage sons and daughters, such as, No son or daughter of mine will be a queer, or, You cannot live under my roof if you are gay, or something much worse. Exacerbating this are the horrifying stories about Catholic parents who disown their own daughter or son and kicks them out of the house when she or he discloses (reveals that they are LGBT) to their parents.48 It is shameful that approximately 43 percent of LGBTQ adolescents are forced out of the house altogether by their parents, who are thus disowning their own children because they have a unique sexual orientation.49 Another black eye for Catholic parents is that it is not uncommon for LGBTQ youth to find solace on the streets; approximately 46 percent of LGBTQ teenagers run away from home because of family rejection of sexual orientation.50 The reality of the situation is that LGBTQ youth need authentic advocacy by Catholic parishes, from parish youth ministries, and from parents. Authentic advocacy and genuine pastoral care cannot be in the form of (1) trying to change a young persons sexual orientation, (2) pressuring adolescents to conform to societal standards of normal sexuality, or (3) thinking that God does not love them or does not listen to them because of their sexual orientation. Fernando Arzola astutely points out, If the church does not provide a safe, nonjudgmental environment to help them [LGBTQ youth] process issues and questions, they will undoubtedly go somewhere else for help. 46 USCCB, RTV, 1920. 47 Arthur David Canales, A Qualitative Study of the Attitudes of Catholic Youth Ministers toward LGBTQ Youth, (unpublished findings). The survey was sent out to over one hundred Catholic youth ministers, via email, on April 1, 2014 and was closed and compiled on May 27, 2014. The survey was titled Questionnaire on LGBTQ Youth & Catholic Youth Ministry and it asked fifteen questions. The final data and results of the study are to be published in the future. 48 Ritch C. Savin-Williams, The New Gay Teenager (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 3537. 49 Durso and Gates, Serving Our Youth, 4. 50 Durso and Gates, Serving Our Youth, 5. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 69 Unfortunately, these persons or placesgangs, nightclubs, and the streetsmay not necessarily share the values of the church.51 It is in the best interest of pastors, youth ministers, and parents to collaborate on the best practices for integrating LGBTQ youth awareness into the youth ministry. Catholic youth ministry would be wise to focus its efforts on being more open and affirming of LGBTQ youth: (1) teaching adolescents the ways to cope as a teenage sexual minority in the family, school, and church; (2) helping young people find positive heterosexual and homosexual role models in the community; (3) providing LGBTQ youth with a safe place to meet and grow in their faith as part of the parish community and the sub-community of youth ministry; (4) catechizing juvenile sexual minorities about human sexuality and theology of the body without stigmatizing and shaming; (5) loving LGBTQ adolescents for who they are, and not for who they are not; and (6) developing ways to embrace an LGBTQ young persons sexuality and his or her Christian discipleship. Catholic catechesis plays an enormous role in helping for justification in schools and parishes to develop programs that help to bolster Catholic identity in LGBTQ youth.52 Becoming more open and affirming with LGBTQ youth honestly addresses the fundamental human needs of sexual minority teenagers. All Christian youth ministry is a response to, and in light of, Gods active presence for the life of the worlda presence that reflects and acts on behalf of all adolescents.53 LGBTQ youth, like heterosexual adolescents, deserve a lived theological emphasis on a lived experience of soteriology as the natural extension of Gods passionate engagement with the world.54 In other words, those ministering to the young church may want to be more meta-reflective with the existential (human) and ontological (spiritual) needs of LGBTQ youth. Pastoral care in Catholic youth ministry is the hope of praxistheology in action done well in the name of Godto, for, and with adolescents.55 Therefore, adolescent pastoral care aims at catering and ministering to the needs of LGBTQ youth, a population that is currently being underserved in mainstream Catholic youth ministry. To provide competent and proficient advocacy and pastoral care to LGBTQ adolescents, development of appropriate pastoral strategies is paramount for Catholic youth ministers. In the footnote below are some concrete pastoral practices that could easily be incorporated into any Catholic youth ministry as part of its comprehensive curriculum. 56 51 Fernando Arzola, Jr., Toward a Prophetic Youth Ministry: Theory and Praxis in Urban Context (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2008), 47. 52 Maher and Sever, Educators in Catholic Schools, 100. 53 Craig Dykstra and Dorothy C. Bass, A Theological Understanding of Christian Practices, in Practicing Theology: Beliefs and Practices in Christian Life, eds. Miroslav Volf and Dorothy C. Bass (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002), 18. 54 Root and Dean, Theological Turn, 223. 55 Department of [Catholic] Education, Vision of Youth Ministry, 67. 56 A few pedagogical and pastoral strategies for implementation in a Catholic youth ministry to be more open and affirming with LGBTQ youth could be the following: t
Strategy 1: LGBTQ Youth Speaker Series. Bring in LGBTQ speakers within the community to address and discuss their personal struggles, issues, and concerns about growing up in the church. This could be a powerful conscious-raising series for all teenagers involved in the youth ministry. t
Strategy 2: LGBTQ Film Series. Develop a four-week film series on LGBTQ Issues and discuss the pertinent themes that a given movie addresses. Here are some movie options: My Own Private Idaho (1991), Philadelphia (1993), Boys Dont Cry (1999), Weekend (2001), Brokeback Mountain (2005), Milk (2008), Circumstance (2011), Pariah (2011), Dallas Buyers Club (2013), The Normal Heart (2014), and First Girl I Ever Loved (2016). t
Strategy 3: LGBTQ Youth Book Club. Read and discuss a different book each month with a group of interested teenagers. Here is list of potential books that will interest adolescents: Giovannis Room (1956) by James Baldwin, Rose of No Mans Land (2005) by Michelle Tea, Hero (2007) by Perry Moore, The Color Purple (1982) by Alice Walker, Fun House: A Family Tragicomic (2006) by Alison Bechdel, Boy Meets Boy (2003) by David Levithan, and The Difference Between You and Me by Madeleine George (2012), but there are many more. t
Strategy 4: LGBTQ Youth Retreat. Offer a weekend retreat that highlights certain LGBTQ youth themes. The theme could be the Dispelling Myths retreat or the Acceptance retreat. The retreat could offer a variety of presentations on various topics of interest to LGBTQ youth, such as Knowing Yourself, Loving Yourself, Understanding LGBTQ Spirituality, Loving God and Loving Neighbor, and/or Living LGBTQ Christian Discipleship. The list of topics and talks for the retreat is limitless. There are several more implementation approaches, but too many to recommend here. For more information please feel free to contact the author of this article at acanales@marian.edu. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 70 Conclusion Comprehensive Catholic youth ministry is not a theoretical exercise. Catholic youth ministry is a commitment to and participation in young peoples joys, hopes, and struggles for a full adolescent life, and discernment of Gods salvific action in teenagers personal history.57 Youth ministry is Gods work-in-action, embodied and integrated pedagogically and holistically with critical thinking and theological reflection, and therefore cannot overlook ministering to, with, and for LGBTQ youth. It is time for the Catholic Church to offer pastoral wisdom and insights on ministering to LGBTQ youth instead of offering insensitive platitudes such as we love the sinner, but hate the sin. Simplistic answers and once-for-all explanations will not satisfy or pacify the LGBTQ community, and one-dimensional answers should not gratify Catholic youth ministers either. Catholic youth ministry would do well to perform emancipatory pastoral practicesbe open and affirming to LGBTQ youththat promote peace through justice, service, and love.58 57 Pamela Copper-White, Shared Wisdom: Use of Self in Pastoral Care and Counseling (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2004), 186. 58 Cooper-White, Shared Wisdom, 191. NTR volume 28 number 2, March 2016 71  ...

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... Religious Education The official journal of the Religious Education Association ISSN: 0034-4087 (Print) 1547-3201 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urea20 Models of Christian Leadership in Youth Ministry Arthur David Canales To cite this article: Arthur David Canales (2014) Models of Christian Leadership in Youth Ministry, Religious Education, 109:1, 24-44, DOI: 10.1080/00344087.2014.868207 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2014.868207 Published online: 12 Feb 2014. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 2298 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 1 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=urea20 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY Arthur David Canales Marian University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA Abstract This article addresses four models of leadership that Christian communities may want to adopt to help them assess and articulate a more vibrant and dynamic youth ministry. In particular, this article will demonstrate that authentic Christian leadership for youth ministry is much more than teaching young people about pastoral skills, but requires a lifestyle that empowers adolescents to become responsible and genuine leaders in their schools, churches, neighborhoods, and communities. This article offers a descriptive analysis of four types or approaches (models) of leadership that have been used successfully in secular industry and non-profit work, but are not being utilized at present in youth ministry (Canales 2006). Moreover, this study demonstrates the various ways that each of the four models can be integrated into youth ministry on the prescriptive level through various pastoral and pedagogical strategies. Likewise, this exposition is meant to be ecumenical in nature as its aim is to promote a better understanding of the dynamics of leadership for Christian youth ministry. Finally, this author writes from a Catholic perspective, but the material and insights that are contained in this article are applicable to all Christian youth ministry and have some applicability beyond Christianity. For many years I have observed the so-called leadership training and development of Christian youth ministry. The term leadershipas I have witnessed it over the years, appears to be an oxymoron and much to do about nothing because there is hardly any authentic leadership development being accomplished. In reality, the term leadership is being misused and confused with learning the fundamentals and principles of youth ministry, which could all be summed up in a course entitled Youth Ministry 101. Christian leadership merits exploration and implementation into our Christian youth ministries and Christian high school campus ministries. Religious Education Vol. 109 No. 1 JanuaryFebruary 24 C The Religious Education Association Copyright  ISSN: 0034-4087 print DOI: 10.1080/00344087.2014.868207 ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 25 This article will examine four models of leadership which offer positive attributes and implications for Christian youth ministry. The four models of leadership that are addressed in this study are: servant, moral, spiritual, and transformational leadership. The paramount importance of integrating the four models of Christian leadership into youth ministry is significant for several reasons. First, the models offer youth ministers different approaches to integrate into their youth ministry curriculum. For example, a youth minister may decide to host a leadership series every year, in which case, a different model could be learned, discussed, and implemented. A teenager participating in the series can experience and learn about different models of leadership in each year in attendance. Second, by studying each model the youth minister can learn to identify the leadership model that best resonates with his/her ministry style. This can be a great benefit for the youth minister and for shaping the direction of his/her ministry. Third, Christian youth ministry deserves to learn more about the various models of leadership and it may be beneficial to learn from other disciplinespsychology, sociology, leadershipin order to further enhance its ministry outreach and move its leadership training and development into new areas, which will ultimately improve ministry to adolescents. DEFINING LEADERSHIP AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Before discussing new approaches for Christian youth ministry, it may be advantageous to define the terminology surrounding leadership. Leadership Studies is an expanding field, and seems to grow exponentially every year. All a person has to do is walk into their local bookstore and see all the new books appearing in the leadership section. Originally, education and organizational business developed the majority of leadership theories and practices. However, over the past 15 years other academic disciples have entered the ring and have integrated the numerous philosophies and conceptualizations in the leadership arena. Moreover, Christian leadership is only a slice of leadership studies. Its various ideas and traits play an integral part to the growing field of leadership studies and certainly have the ability to influence Christian ministry and pastoral care work. Leadership is a rather elusive and difficult concept to determine and there are probably as many definitions for leadership as there are 26 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY people who have tried to define the term. Leadership scholar Peter G. Northouse reluctantly defines leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (2007, 3). Understanding, leadership involves two crucial components: (1) process and (2) influence, and both help to move a group or individuals toward a common purpose or goal. Leadership as process indicates that leadership is fluid, dynamic, and changing, and that it is not necessarily a trait or characteristic that resides in a single person, but rather it is multifaceted and multi-actional, which implies that a leader is affected by the followers just as the followers are affected by the leader (Northouse, 3). Leadership involves influence when groups and individuals are concerned with the ways that those in leadership positions affect followers and work toward a common purpose; thus leadership is not restricted to any formally designated single person in a group (Northouse, 3). Therefore, both process and influence are indispensable to leadership. After scouring, the three leading and most influential books that address leadership development in youth ministry, not one of them offers a concrete definition of leadership (East and Roberto 1994; McCarty 2005; and East 2009). In these books there are discussions about leadership development (teenagers conquering their fears on high ropes courses, climbing rock formations, and other team building exercises), there are a few pastoral guidelines for developing youth leaders (more akin to leadership traits: trustworthiness, approachability, being a team player, etc.), and there are plenty of pages written about the leadership roles (greeters at Sunday worship, playing music, being an adolescent core leader, etc.) that are to be found in Christian youth ministry, but no tangible definition regarding Christian leadership in youth ministry, and this is dissatisfying and disheartening. The only definition regarding leadership and youth ministry is that offered by the U.S. Catholic Bishops document Renewing the Vision: A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry: The ministry of leadership development calls forth, affirms, and empowers the diverse gifts, talents, and abilities of adults and young people in our faith communities for comprehensive ministry with adolescents (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops 1997, 40). The U.S. Catholic Bishops definition suggests that leadership development is an extension of the Churchs ministry and impacts adults and adolescents alike. Since leadership development calls forth, affirms, and empowers the diverse gifts, talents, and abilities of adults and young people it also suggests that leadership development has a natural connection with ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 27 Christian discipleship. Lex vivendi (law of Christian living) is in actuality the essence of Christian discipleship (Canales, 2012, 36). In a recent article, published in Australia, leadership is one of the eight theological categories of Christian discipleship. Youth ministry is ripe for training young people to become Christian leaders. .. which can encompass various settings (Canales 2012, 38). Unfortunately, it is often the connection between leadership and discipleship that gets nuanced or confused in Christian youth ministry. Discipleship is mistaken for leadership, and in reality leadership is one of the many components of Christian discipleship (Canales 2004, 4546). Greg Dobie Moser notes that a leading youth ministry strategy that is found in Christian circles is to try and infuse five operational principles of leadership development into youth ministry: (1) rooted in ministerial relationships, (2) integrate faith and prayer, (3) respect, support, and encourage other activities, (4) build meaningful roles, and (5) build on existing strengths and assets (2005, 136138). This approach to leadership situates the dynamics of leadership into the busyness and hecticness of youth ministry programs (context), yet does not really capture and explain the essence of leadership as a way to direct, motive, and inspire young people (content). Therefore, rudimentary training techniques concerning youth ministry are being passed off as leadership. Leadership in a Christian context needs to have its content understood, evaluated, and ultimately integrated for the edification of comprehensive Christian youth ministry. ADDRESSING LEADERSHIP FROM A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE It is imperative that any ecumenical and comprehensive youth ministry employ a leadership system that engages in and learns from the various leadership ideals and philosophies. Learning specific Christian leadership approaches will further enhance youth ministrys understanding of leadership and leadership development. The Russian word perestroika means a restructuring in thinking, and it is time that Christian youth ministry restructure its thinking regarding leadership. One recommendation is that Christian leadership is not necessarily concerned with leadership training or the pastoral development of a person, but a larger framework that empowers people to think, act, and live differentlymore leadership oriented. 28 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY I have taught a course entitled, Models of Christian Leadership, several times over the past ten years to undergraduate students, to adults at churches, and to youth ministers in seminars. Throughout the course I have the students define and redefine the term Christian leadership. Below is the definition of leadership that one class comprised: A process of empowering and motivating through communication and courageous guidance, bringing about challenges and changes through a visionary transformation. According to the above definition there are several points that require nuancing. First, Christian leadership emphasizes a conceptual and interactive influence and not linear or single-minded thinking and acting. Second, Christian leadership, empowers, inspires, and motivates people to move beyond themselves to act justly with fairness and objectivity. Third, Christian leadership guides and challenges in a way similar to an athletic trainer or coach: role-modeling, vision-setting, and individual attention based on needs. Fourth, Christian leadership is visionary, futuristic, and leads to transformation in individuals, communities, and societies. Fifth, the word service is missing from this group of students definition. Service is a major component of Christian leadership, as service is at the heart of Christian discipleship and leadership, and as aforementioned, leadership is a component of Christian discipleship (Canales 2012). Christian leadership merits exploration and integration into all youth ministry, regardless of denomination or affiliation, simply because there are connecting points of convergence between the two areas. A logical starting point for Christian leadership is connecting Jesus of Nazareth with leadership. There is absolutely no doubt that Jesus was a leader (Kelly 2010, 9)! He was morally upright (Luke 6:2736, 3742, NAB1) and ethical (Matthew 5:112). He was charismatic (Luke 6:2026), he severed others (Mark 3:112), and attended to their needs (John 2:111). He motivated and inspired crowds (Matthew 14:1321). He was a spiritual person and a man of prayer (Luke 22:3945), he was a social architect (John 3:121), and he was humble (Mark 1:911), empathetic (John 4:415), and compassionate (John 9:141). By todays standards Jesus exemplifies and reflects many portraits and models of leadership. It is safe to state that Jesus is the prototype for Christian leadership (Canales 2003, C1; 2004, 45). The challenge for youth ministry is to instill Christian leadership 1 The Scripture references and translations throughout this study will always come from the New American Bible unless otherwise noted. ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 29 principles and skills that will foster adolescent Christian disciples and future Christian leaders. Consequently, a great vehicle and catalyst to a foster leadership within the Church is youth ministry (Canales 2007, 68). DESCRIPTIVE AND PRESCRIPTIVE EXPLANATIONS OF THE FOUR MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP FOR YOUTH MINISTRY There are four approaches of Christian leadership, which merit introduction and that can greatly influence youth ministry. The four models of Christian leadership that will be addressed are all found throughout Jesus life and public ministry: (1) servant-leadership, (2) moral leadership, (3) spiritual leadership, and (4) transformational leadership. The four models represent an energetic approach and vibrant direction in leadership for any Christian youth ministry to study, learn, and integrate into their mission statements, ministry strategies, and catechetical curricula. Each of the models merits further exploration for their potential influence upon Christian youth ministry. Each of the models addressed will be posed the same two questions. The first question is descriptive asking: what exactly is (the model) of leadership? The second question is prescriptive asking: in which ways can (this model) of leadership be fruitfully and/or efficiently be integrated into youth ministry? The first questions are answered by theoretical and theological responses that can be examined and scrutinized since they are more conceptual in nature. While the second questions are answered with more pragmatic and pastoral responses which can be readily infused and implemented into a youth ministry catechetical curriculum. The goal, however, is that a youth minister, along with the entire leadership team of the youth ministry, engage in both the theoretical and the practical natures of each of the four models. Servant-Leadership Servant-leadership became a new paradigm for leadership with the groundbreaking work of Robert K. Greenleaf Servant-Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness (1977, 2002). Greenleafs book, now the seminal work in leadership studies, revolutionized the fields of business and education with his innovative, 30 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY yet simple understanding of leadership: lead by serving others. Greenleaf states that the great leader is seen as servant first, and that simple fact is the key to greatness (Greenleaf, 21). Servant-leadership understands that an authentic leader is servant and this idea undergirds Jesus ministry. Jesus is the original servant leader, and a person who lead by service (Eckert 2009, 295). Biblical scholar Efran Agosto notes that Jesus leadership style concentrated on service, [he] focused his attention onthe poor and the outcast, those suffering the most, those to whom nobody, not even established political and religious leaders who could help, pays attention (2005, 53). All four gospels identify Jesus leadership with those who suffered, lived marginalized lives, and were disenfranchised by society, which made him a great leader of the anawim or those overwhelmed by want and poverty (Agosto, 54). Two questions arise from the brief synopsis of servant-leadership. First, what exactly is servant-leadership? For Greenleaf, servantleadership challenges its followers to move beyond idyllic existence and blatantly calls for more servants [who] should emerge as leaders, or should follow only servant-leaders (2002, 24). Therefore, if the leader is a servant, the followers will be led by a servant! The servant model turns the typical male-dominated approach to leadership upside-down: servant-leadership is not power, control, intimidation, threats, or coercion, nor is it concerned with punishments, negative reward schedules, or tit-for-tat (Greenleaf, 33). By its very nature, servant-leadership puts the subordinate first, the followers first, the employees first, the students first, the children first, the poor first, the illiterate first; hence, acceptance, empathy, and compassion are the backbones of servant-leadership (Canales 2003, C1). The Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership describes 10 characteristics that are to be found in servant-leadership organizations and institutions: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community (Spears 1998, 46). Christian youth ministry would be wise to adhere to the 10 characteristics of servantleadership and experiment and implement servant-leadership principles. Albeit these 10 characteristics would need to be nuanced in a youth ministry framework, they are ministry applicable and appropriate for Christian youth ministry. Second, in which ways can servant-leadership be fruitfully and/or efficiently integrated into youth ministry? Servant-leadership is not simply a modest suggestion or preserved ideal. Servant-leadership is ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 31 a lived reality for those who are courageous enough to put it into action. Servant-leadership can impact adolescent ministry in several ways. The most primordial way would be to integrate it into the catechetical formation for the adult volunteers by reading and studying Greenleafs book as a ministry staff. This process would formally introduce the youth ministry team to the concepts, ideas, and philosophy of servant-leadership. Another way to integrate servant-leadership is to conduct a five-week or ten-week series on servant-leadership for the entire youth ministry community: teens, adult catechists, and parents. Such a series could focus on either 1 or 2 of the 10 servant-leadership characteristics. This strategy should have pragmatic ramifications for adolescents and adults in the ministry: from budgeting time to developing a mission and vision statement for the youth ministry. Another effective impact could be that the youth minister plansalong with the 11th and 12th graders in the youth ministry, and those who have already been exposed to service-learning and service projectsa servant-leadership project. A servant-leadership project is one that empowers teenagers to lead service-learning experiences for their school, sports team, neighborhood, or parish; this process is known as praxis-based education2 (Canales 2011, 83). Another pedagogically productive strategy for integrating servant-leadership is to offer a DVD series that highlight servant-leadership themes and concepts found in such movies as Stand and Deliver (1988), Spitfire Grill (1996) Les Miserables (1997), Patch Adams (2000), Pay It Forward (2002), The Emperors Club (2003), The Legend of Bagger Vance (2004), The Blind Side (2009), Soul Surfer (2011), or The Help (2012). The potential impact that servant-leadership has on young people and on the youth ministry are enormous. Moreover, the possibilities for integrating servant-leadership are boundless. Another great benefit is that servant-leadership is easy to implement into youth ministry curricula. 2 The term praxis-based education refers to a pedagogy that is rooted in experiential learning. Praxis-based education provides young people with a tangible learning experienced based on service-learning and makes a lasting impact on their lives as they embark on this type of education. There are four dimensions of praxis-based education that help to shape and mold Christian identity, spirituality, and faith-formation in young people: (1) academic and pastoral reflection rooted in reality, (2) integrated community learning, (3) recollection and pedagogical accompaniment, and (4) formation of Christo-centric imagination. For further discussion on each of these four dimensions see Canales (2011, 8384). 32 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY Moral Leadership Christian leadership is far more encompassing than implementing servant-leadership and good ideas; it involves righteousness, ethics, concern for truth, justice and peace, and moral integrity. Jesus never declared himself a moral leader; he simply lived a righteous and morally upright life as portrayed in the gospels (Bretzke 2004 8081). Yet, Jesus also exemplified the virtue of moral leadership. Jesus message embraced high moral ideas and ethical living and are found in the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:112), his teaching on the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12), and his God is love discourse (John 3:1617). Regarding moral leadership a similar questions can be asked. First, what exactly is moral leadership? Leadership studies expert Bernard M. Bass understands moral leadership as an approach of leadership that best serves the integrity of an organization or institution: Moral leadership helps followers to see the real conflict between competing values, the inconsistencies between espoused values and behavior and the need for realignments in values, changes in behavior, or transformations of institutions. . . . [However] the [moral] leader may be a breaker and changer of what society has regarded heretofore as right and wrong. (Bass 1985, 182184) There appears to be a real need for cultivating moral leadership in our society and culture, and therefore, Christian youth ministry may be a place to help guide young people to learn about morality and moral leadership. Educator Thomas J. Sergiovanni maintains that reinventing leadership must begin with moral judgment because there is a difference between that which is right and that which is pleasurablealthough the two may not be mutually exclusive (1998, 18). Sergiovanni states, Moral commitment achieves better results and builds better commitments (27). Consequently, intrinsic rewards do not necessarily motivate people. Motivation is based on doing good work, which is a moral obligation. Being committed to the work produces moral involvement and authenticity.3 3 This is an approach known as the Categorical Imperative, developed by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (17241803). In effect, the categorical imperative approaches morality on actions that occur because of desired goals founded in goodness, fairness, and justness. An act is moral only insofar as it is done for the sake of obligation for the good; and thus, it fulfills the categorical imperative or moral obligation. Christians ought to do the good, morally right thing, and make ethically ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 33 Moral theologian James F. Keenan believes that moral wisdom is gained through hope and is a byproduct of leadership. Ideally, moral leadership highlights and exhibits characteristics and virtues like integrity, honesty, humility, trustworthiness, and prudence (Keenan 2010, 155). Moreover, a moral leader practices and models hope for people. Hope is not only a theological virtue, but hope is the virtue that makes possible the journey from faith to love (Keenan, 156). For Keenan, hope is a virtue that moral leaders should to try to foster in themselves and in their followers. In Northouses scheme, moral leadership has five principles: respecting others, serving others, showing justice, manifesting honesty, and building community (2007, 350356). These five principles help to guide and situate moral leadership within people and institutions, and jibe neatly into youth ministry. Another hallmark of moral leadership is authenticity. Sergiovanni insists that authenticity will lead to motivation, inspiration, and transformation, and professionals such as teachers, ministers, social workers, and health care workers use morality to guide them as leaders to become virtuous (102107). Organizations, institutions, and ministries would be wise to start leading with morality as a starting point and start living more authentically. Second, in which ways can moral leadership be fruitfully and/or efficiently integrated into youth ministry? Since morality has always been part and parcel of Christian discipleship, moral leadership should be inherently built into youth ministry. One practical way that moral leadership could impact youth ministry would be for the parish youth minister to study and learn about Christian morality, and moral leadership in particular. By doing this, the youth minister will learn about the principles that shape morality: ethical behavior, justice, beneficence, integrity, dignity, respect, and equality. A second pedagogical strategy is to integrate a Morality Bootcamp for young people. This would take place over one week or weekend, collaborating with various agencies, organizations, and institutions within the greater community to teach teenagers about ethical behavior and moral living. For instance, a healthcare professional can discuss the physiological and medical ramifications of sexually transmitted diseases; a college philosophy professor can discuss morality from a philosophical perspective; a social worker can speak about upright decisions simply because it is the just and noble to do the good and part of Christian responsibility. 34 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY demonstrating justice to the poor and marginalized of society; someone from the juvenile penitentiary system can speak about the negative effects of living an immoral life; a theologian could address Jesus and morality as portrayed in the Bible. A third pragmatic approach that impacts youth is to offer a five- or six-week series entitled, The Great Moral Leaders Series, that showcases profound moral leaders from around the world such as Abraham Lincoln (18091865), 16th U.S. President and abolisher of slavery; Albert Schweitzer (18751965), world renowned physician, musician, theologian, and humanitarian; Helen Keller (18801968), born blind and deaf, but who became an author, political activist, and lecturer; she was the first deaf and blind person to earn a baccalaureate degree; Booker T. Washington (19561915), African-American leader, educator, and community advocate; George Muller (18051898), German minister, builder of orphanages; Joan of Arc (14121431), French heroine and religious and military leader; and Florence Nightingale (18201910), English social reformer and founder of the nursing profession. The series could also incorporate cinema by utilizing videos or DVDs on the various moral leaders listed above. All of these strategies are pedagogically solid and can be integrated effectively into a multitude of youth ministry programs. Spiritual Leadership The life of Jesus of Nazareth is filled with spirituality and leadership (Scofield and Juliano, 79). For ChristiansOrthodox, Catholic, and ProtestantJesus is the spiritual master and leader for all to emulate. Jesus lived a moral and ethical life, demonstrated preferential treatment for the poor, treated the marginalized of society with respect and dignity, advocated non-violence and peace, and was a person of prayer, meditation, and contemplation (Canales 2003). Theologian Brennan R. Hill observes that spiritual leaders serve as godly role models, have strong experiences of God in their lives or profound religious experiences, and possess an acute openness to the Divine (2002, 23). Spiritual leaders also exhibit certain godly qualities such as a deep abiding faith in God, strong prayer life, searching for something greater than themselves, belief in non-violence, and are altruistic in their vision and life style (Hill, 287292). Hill also notes that it is interesting the influence which parents have in shaping spiritual leaders early on in their lives, thus, parents also play an extremely important role in leadership development of young people (292). ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 35 Returning to the two questions already posed: First, what exactly is spiritual leadership? Essentially, spiritual leadership is a new and emerging model within the field of leadership studies and concentrates on motivation, inspiration, and the cultivation of ones interior life, at work and home (Fry, Matherly, and Quimet 2010, 284). Spiritual leadership is a calling that generates faith, hope, and altruistic love within individuals, groups or organizations which empowers followers to look forward to the future, while keeping grounded in the reality of the present. Spiritual leadership also focuses on the spiritual wellbeing of others and includes efforts to help people cultivate their interior life.4 The predominant foci of spiritual leadership is vision, altruistic love, and faith/hope, which influence inner life (spiritual practice), calling (making a difference, life having purpose), and membership (being understood and appreciated). The importance of spiritual leadership, as diagramed in Figure 1, is to foster a sense of holistic wellbeing, creative vision, and unconditional empowerment and support for leader and followers (Fry, Matherly, and Quimet 2010, 285286). In fact, it is not uncommon to see the title CSO (Chief Spiritual Officer) in some smaller Christian-based not-for-profit companies; this titleChief Spiritual Officeradds a different and unique perspective to an organization and on the traditional business titles of CFO (Chief Financial Officer), COO (Chief Operations Officer), and CEO (Chief Executive Officer). Henry and Richard Blackaby maintain that spiritual leadership consists of nine attributes which can greatly enhance Christian youth ministry. Spiritual leadership is: (1) a calling, (2) trustworthy, (3) biblically based, (4) discerns Gods will, (5) believes in Gods authority, (6) established by Jesus, (7) leads through obedience to Gods purpose, (8) Christo-centric, and (9) moving people and groups on to Gods agenda (Blackaby and Blackaby, 2011, xi, 5, 1014, 2030, 158). Clearly the above scheme for spiritual leadership is heavily influenced 4 International Institute for Spiritual Leadership, Spiritual Leadership Theory (Harker Heights, TX: International Institute for Spiritual Leadership, 2011) www. iispiritualleadership.com/spiritualleadership. This is a world renowned think-tank of spiritual leadership scholars and researchers. To date, the International Institute for Spiritual Leadership has developed the only theory of spiritual leadership that has been extensively tested and validated in a variety of settings. Studies have been conducted in over 100 organizations including schools, military units, cities, police, and for profit organizations (sample sizes ranged from 10 to over 1,000). 36 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY FIGURE 1. The Spiritual Leadership Model. Used with written permission for this article by Dr. Louis W. Fry, Founder of International Institute for Spiritual Leadership and Professor of Management at Texas A&M UniversityCentral Texas, and cited from the International Institute for Spiritual Leadership website: www. iispiritualleadership.com/spiritual/theory. (Color figure available online.) by faith in Jesus Christ; however, authentic spiritual leaders work with all people not only Christian people (Blackaby and Blackaby, 33, 49). Second, in which ways can spiritual leadership be fruitfully and/or efficiently integrated into youth ministry? The American Trappist monk Thomas Merton (19151968) served as a model of spiritual leadership, and wrote a spiritual best-seller, The Seven Storey Mountain (1948) an autobiography about personal sin, suffering, struggle, and conversion. Merton writes, The Christian lifeand especially the contemplative lifeis a continual discovery of Christ in new and unexpected places (238). Therefore, prayer is sine qua non for discovering spiritual leadership and developing spiritual leaders in Christian young people. The positiveness that a youth minister may be able to generate by teaching adolescents about spiritual leadership is potentially tremendous. It gives direction to the youth ministry by focusing on spirituality, which has not always been the primary focus of Christian youth ministry (Canales 2010, 7). Moreover, spiritual leadership, although difficult to measure qualitatively, can be casually calculated by the integration of spirituality in a teenagers life or by the spiritual awareness that envelopes the youth ministry through efforts to provide systematic explorations of spirituality. Furthermore, the process ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 37 of attuning ones self to become a spiritual leader has merit, and there are several elements within that process that are advantageous for teenagers to engage in: (a) the ability to seek Gods guidance, (b) the art of discerning Gods will, and (c) the tedious and time-consuming action of prayer and meditation (Canales 2009, 71). Pastorally, there are several areas which could be explored with teenagers by providing spiritual leadership development. A first pedagogical method is to host a weekend spiritual retreat that highlights spiritual leadership. A second productive strategy is to conduct weekly prayer services during the liturgical seasons of Advent (4 week series) and Lent (6 week series), which are planned, organized, and facilitated by the youth of the parish. A third practical action is to offer a 6-week series entitled Spiritual Heroes that teaches teenagers about modern day spiritual figures such as the Anglican South African Archbishop Desmond Tutu (1931present); the South African anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela (1918present); the Albanian Catholic nun Mother Teresa (19101997), and who was missionary for the poorest of the poor in the streets of Calcutta, India; the Catholic El Salvadorian Archbishop Oscar Romero (19171980), who was martyred for his preferential treatment for the poor; the American Catholic spiritual guru Thomas Merton (19151968); and the Catholic modernday apostle and evangelist Pope John Paul II (19202005). Studying prominent spiritual leaders may help teenagers recognize that ordinary people can become extraordinary people by Gods grace and spiritual practices. These three pedagogical methods only scratch the surface of implementation activities, but they will help adolescents bolster their spirituality and sharpen their spiritual leadership skills. Transformational Leadership One of the most prolific approaches and successful models for leadership is transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is a process that has the potential to change and ultimately transform individuals, groups, and organizations. As with the other paradigms of leadership addressed, Jesus also exemplifies transformational leadership. Jesus was a transformational leader for several reasons: (1) he leads by example and engages his followers to live up to their fullest potential (Luke 9:5156); (2) he leads by empowerment and guides his followers with inspiration and motivation and sends them out twoby-two to minister to others and help to usher in the kingdom of God 38 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY (Luke 10:116); (3) he leads by encouragement and teaches excellence through the living of high moral standards (Luke 17:110) and learning the demands of discipleship (Luke 17:7); and (4) he leads with charisma and is able to attract large crowds because of his rhetoric, and revolutionary speeches that captivated peoples imagination and sense of responsibility (Matthew 14:1321) (Gadson 2008, 1). Transformational leadership is concerned with performance of followers and also with developing followers to their fullest potential in order to transform society (Northouse 2007, 177, 181). Transformational leaders set out to empower, nurture, and cultivate followers into individuals who transcend their own ambitions and self-interests for the sake of others wellbeing (Canales 2003). Jesus accomplishes both of these transformational actions exceptionally well. Returning our attention to the two fundamental questions raised throughout the article. First, what exactly is transformational leadership? Transformational leadership refers to the process whereby an individual engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower to produce a communal conversion or substantial change (Northouse 2007, 176). Typically, transformational leadership demonstrates two main characteristics within the leader: (1) the leader is charismatic and (2) the leader is a visionary and social architect. It may be worthwhile to examine briefly both of these characteristics. Charismatic Leadership The transformational leader usually exhibits classic charismatic traits. There are five personality characteristics that are demonstrated by charismatic leaders: (1) live as strong role models for the beliefs and values they want their followers to adopt, (2) exhibit confidence and appear competent to followers, (3) articulate ideological goals that have moral overtones, (4) communicate high expectations for followers and they exhibit confidence in followers abilities to meet these expectations, and (5) arouse taskrelevant motives in followers that may include affiliation, power, or esteem (Conger and Kanungo 1999, 178-179). More often than not, the charismatic leader is a person who leads from the front, that is, the leader excites, motivates, inspires, and is the face of the organization. The charismatic leader energizes, engages, and directs the leadership process within a group. Visionary Leadership and Being a Social Architect The transformational leader is typically a person who has great vision and helps ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 39 to shape society for the better. The quality of visioning is attractive to followers and as long as it is realistic and believable (Bennis and Nanus 1997, 89). If a group has a clear vision and if it is understandable to the followers the benefits for the group will be greater and can even help to empower society in general (Bennis and Nanus, 9091). A vision ideally should grow out of the needs of the entire organization if it is truly going to emerge as a tool of empowerment. Beyond being a person of vision, the transformational leader must be a social architect or someone who challenges the status quo of society, a person with high-mindedness that believes in a cause and tries to restructure, reorganize, and reinvigorate organizations and societies by mobilizing people to accept new ideas, concepts, and philosophies (Northouse 2007, 187). Pope John XXIII (18811963) the great social architect of the Catholic Churchcalled this process an aggiornaimento or updating, renewal when he called for the convening of the Second Vatican Council (19621965), which moved the Catholic Church into the contemporary world. Therefore, transformational leadership can also be relational; that is, a relational leader is grounded more in relationship building and emotional intelligence, and can contribute to a process of transformation by leading within the group or leading from behind the scenes of the group. Beyond charismatic and visionary tendencies, transformational leadership also emphasizes hope. According to James MacGregorBurns transformational leadership is hope-filled and is rooted in asceticism, a practice that involves prayer and reflection (2003, 4). For MacGregor-Burns, asceticism is a practice that does not lead one to escape from the worldas equated with monasticismbut illuminates the world; asceticism is enlightenment, it is transformation (45). Second, in which ways can spiritual leadership be fruitfully and/or efficiently integrated into youth ministry? The impact of transformational leadership may be enormous because it can instill in youth the hope that dreams, lofty goals, and ideals based in morality and virtue can be attained. Teaching adolescents about transformational leadership at their age is a novel ideal, but nevertheless, needs to be addressed. A modern American example of transformational leadership is Martin Luther King Jr. (19291968). King raised the consciousness of American society and transformed the American people through the civil rights movement. Along his arduous journey King was beaten, imprisoned, and slandered against and was transformed into an extraordinary person. Youth ministers of every denomination would be wise to consider the legacy and influence of Kings life, 40 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY not only as a model of transformation, but one of nonviolence, pacifism, and compassion. The ideal is to demonstrate to adolescents that achieving great things is not impossible and that their neighborhoods, communities, and societies can be transformed by the upright actions of one person. Consequently, one persons charisma, vision, and due diligence can make a difference in the world! Pragmatically, there are several ways to introduce transformational leadership concepts and ideas into Christian youth ministry. One practical method could be integrating Kings work into several youth ministry gatherings: Week 1: Read Martin Luther King, Jr.s Letter from a Birmingham Jail to the students and then have the students reflect on its content. Week 2: Watch a documentary or movie on the life of Martin Luther King, Jr.; one such DVD is Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Historical Perspective (2002). Week 3: Plan an ecumenical worship service using Kings writings and biblical passages that speak of hope and liberation; such an event can be planned with neighboring churches on Martin Luther King Jr. Day. The goal is to introduce King as a person who exemplifies transformational leadership as a role-model, to excite young people and to empower teenagers to become transformational leaders. A second sensible strategy to help foster transformational leadership would be to offer an eight-week video series entitled Transformational Leaders from Around the World. Week 1: Mohandas Gandhi; watch the movie titled Gandhi (1982) produced by Columbia Home Pictures. Week 2: Dorothy Day; watch the movie titled Entertaining Angels: The Dorothy Day Story (1997) produced by Paulist Press (1-800218-1903). Week 3: Cesar E. Chavez; watch the documentary titled Cesar Chavez: Mexican-American Labor Leader (1995) produced by Schlessinger Video Productions (1-800-843-3620). Week 4: Dalai Lama; watch the documentary titled Ocean of Wisdom (1991) produced by Mediart Films; or Compassion in Exile (1992) produced by Direct Cinema Limited (310-396-4774). ARTHUR DAVID CANALES 41 Week 5: Oscar Romero; watch the movie titled Romero (1989) produced by Paulist Press (1-800-218-1903). Week 6: Mother Teresa; watch the documentary titled Mother Teresa (1986) produced by Red Rose Gallerie (1-800-451-5683). Week 7: Nelson Mandela; watch the documentary titled Mandela the Man (1996) produced by LDA Videos (1-800-966-5130). Week 8: Eleanor Roosevelt; watch the documentary titled Eleanor Roosevelt: A Restless Spirit (1994) produced by A & E Home Video. Such a series explores with adolescents the lives of eight great transformational leaders from around the world. A third realistic example that would bring about transformational awareness within youth ministry is to organize and implement a walk/run called a Marathon of Hope, which could either be a halfmarathon (13.1 miles) or a full marathon (26.2 miles). The run could be advertised at local schools and churches to raise awareness of a noble cause such as to cure Alzheimers Disease or Lou Gehrigs Disease (ALSAmyotropic Lateral Sclerosis). Such an event would begin to create transformational leaders for those young people who helped to plan, organize, and implement the walk/run. A fourth pedagogical plan for social transformation, which emphasizes eradicating prejudice and discrimination, is to take a trip or pilgrimage to the southern region of the United States. Plan a trip to a city in the South such as Selma, Alabama, Little Rock, Arkansas, or Philadelphia, Mississippi, and expose students to the rawness and grittiness of those places while walking in the footsteps of the AfricanAmericans who lived through those tumultuous times. Visiting memorials or listening to stories of the elderly who may have had first-hand experiences of brutality and racism will expose them to experience solidarity and empathy and will lead them to intellectual, moral, and religious conversion. (Canales 2011, 79) An activity such as the pilgrimage can impact young people in profound ways and can lead to fruitful reflection and dialogue about social transformation. All of these ministerial strategies promote transformational leadership in young people and in the community. CONCLUSION Confusion begets clarity. Sometimes when the fog of confusion lifts there is clarity, and that is exactly part and parcel of this article 42 MODELS OF CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP IN YOUTH MINISTRY in regard to differentiating between leadership, leadership development, and the models of Christian leadership. The greatest potential change that perhaps needs to take place, however, is within the pastoral ranks of parish youth ministry. The pastoral practitioners need to gain ground on the academic crowd, and youth ministers are much farther behind leadership scholars with respect to addressing and implementing quality leadership programs. Integrating these four models of Christian leadership into youth ministry will provide fresh pedagogical approaches and new direction for leadership in Christian youth ministry. Both the fresh approach and the new direction are ecumenical and can help youth ministers to better understand the dynamics of leadership. Hopefully, these new dynamics of leadership will influence and empower youth ministers to think about doing leadership in youth ministry differently. This article provides a framework of leadership for youth ministers to build a foundation. Some questions will need to be addressed. How do youth ministers integrate these four models of Christian leadership in ways that impact their mission statements, ministry strategies, program goals, and catechetical curricula? How do these four models of Christian leadership influence the day-to-day ministry style and skill-set of youth ministers? Understanding the various ideals and philosophies from the four models of Christian leadership surveyed in this article will better equip and empower youth ministers to enrich their pastoral practice and perhaps create an environment for young people to thrive as authentic Christian leaders. Youth ministers of every stripeEvangelical, Protestant, Orthodox, and Catholicare more inclined to work with young people on simple leadership skills, rather than diving into deeper waters of comprehending leadership models that offer various styles, traits, characteristics, and philosophies. The suggestion offered in this study of four leadership models is intended to rescue Christian youth ministers from pastoral nearsightedness and offer adolescents something different than the same ole youth ministry group-think that is so pervasive in American Christian youth ministry. To motivate and move leadership in youth ministry beyond the mundane and to steer a course into uncharted waters with the assistance of the bordering discipline of leadership studies makes for good pastoral theology and ministry practice. Arthur David Canales is Associate Professor of Pastoral Theology & Ministry at Marian University, Indianapolis, Indiana. 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