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... STUDENT META-DATA Kayla Bledsoe (Class of 2020): K W R E B P first year of her study at Marian University. Kayla has served as an education director for the Boys and Girls Club, working with kids at IPS School 109 who are enrolled in the Indiana Kids Program. The program requires elementary children to complete 20 service hours and 10 hours of career education. Kayla plans volunteer opportunities, schedules guest speakers to help them learn about different careers, and assists them with homework. After traveling to Brazil, Kayla lived in the Dorothy Day House, where students serve as ambassadors of peace and justice on campus. F ,K explored the history of LGBT rights in the United States and Rio Grande de Sol, Brazil, and public perceptions of the LGBT community. Elizabeth Hilt (Class of 2017): Elizabeth finished up her degree in secondary education at Marian University, W R E B P . S was awarded the Senior Award for Outstanding Achievement in Secondary Education, and the Sister Mary Carol Schroeder Memorial Award. Liz was part of the Marian University Marching Band since her first year, and also led the band as Drum Major in her last two years. In addition to band, Liz took part in numerous volunteer activities and served as the President of the Model United Nations student group on campus, working with fellow delegates to represent Sudan, Egypt, and Latvia at National and Regional Conf .F quality and empowerment, Liz assessed gender differences in secondary education. Maresa Kelly (Class of 2020): Maresa Kelly W E B P first year at Marian. She has been a member of the San Damiano (a faith based community program), the president of the Catholic Relief Services chapter on campus, the Vice President of Mission and Identity of the Student Government, a member of the speech team, and Vice President of the Campus Ministry Council. As a San Damiano Scholar, Maresa is committed to being a leader of faith. M U S D S P C L educates and forms college students who have a love f C .I interested in becoming leaders in parishes, education, health care, business, law, and notfor-profits. For this next year, Maresa will also have the opportunity to live in the Dorothy Day House. She first became interested in this experience because she was very much interested in bridging the inequality gap between genders and hoped to do mission work abroad. This project and course provided a perfect opportunity to combine her two passions. F quality and empowerment, Maresa looked at the U S B . Marah Leonfils (Class of 2017): Marah completed her degree in communications with a M W R E B P . During her studies she lived in the Dorothy Day Peace and Justice House, a vibrant hub of student culture and civic discussion. The community is modeled after principles embraced by Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker Movement including nonviolence, simple living, hospitality, community involvement, daily prayer. With the Dorothy Day House, Marah was an ambassador or peace and justice, hosting movies, dinners, and speakers on campus. As President of the Union for Black Identify Club, Marah organized C I a safe space for students to discuss issues of racism. In addition to these activities, Marah was part of the Marian Speech team and worked in the Speaking Center as a senior, where she found joy helping peers discover or refine their oration capabilities no matter where they were in the speech creation process. For her research on women ,M examined black women in literature. FACULTY META-DATA HOLLY A. GASTINEAU-GRIMES, PH.D. EDUCATION Ph.D. Political Science, 2012, Purdue University M.A. Political Science, 2002, University of South Carolina B.A. Political Science / Anthropology, 2000, Purdue University PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE x x x x x x Assistant Professor, Marian University, Indianapolis, IN, 2015-Present Teach International Relations, Politics of Development, Public Policy and women Visiting Assistant Professor, Marian University, Indianapolis, IN, 2013-2015 Research Consultant, Laurel Weldon, Short Term Projects 2013 Teaching and Research Assistant, Purdue University, 2004-2012 Assistant Editor/Editorial Program Assistant, Wiley Publishing, Indianapolis, IN, 2002-2004 Editorial Intern Journal of Politics, Government and International Studies, SC, 2000-2002 SELECTED PAPERS AND PRESENTATIONS L K C S W , M C S :N , W A :P ,S M P G P S in Canada, the United States, the United A ,A 2015. B ? W 2014. A I S D P :T American Political Science Association, August 2014. I D G M ,H C W , SELECTED HONORS AND SERVICES x x x x x OASIS, Post-Election Lecture, March 2017 Politically (IN)gaged IUPUI and Marian Webinar, January 2017 Indiana Campus Connect Election Engagement Grant, September-December 2016 Chair and Discussant, Midwest Political Science Association Conference, April 2014 Marian Bonaventure Research/Travel Grant Recipient, Fall 2014 x American Political Science Association Women and Politics, 2013 Best Dissertation Nomination MARY ELLEN LENNON, PH.D. EDUCATION Ph.D. American Studies, 2003, Harvard University M.A. English, 1997, Harvard University B.A. History, 1994, State University of New York at Binghamton PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE x x x x x Assistant Professor, Marian University, Indianapolis, IN, 2008-present T , U.S. Fulbright Lecturer, University of Ouagadougou, 2007-2008 Assistant Professor, Bard High School Early College, 2004-2008 Visiting Assistant Professor, University of Iowa, 2003-2004 History and Literature Tutor, Harvard University, 2001-2003 SELECTED PAPERS AQ R :N M B ck Arts Movement, 1968-1971, in New Thoughts on the Black Arts Movement, edited by Lisa Collins and Margo Crawford (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006) SELECTED HONORS x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Marian University Padua Teaching Award, 2010 Marian University Faculty Development Grant, 2009, 2010 J. William Fulbright Fellowship Award, Burkina Faso, 2007-2008 Korean Society Korean Studies Fellowship for Study and Research, Summer 2007 Fulbright-Hays Fellowship for Australian Seminar Abroad, Summer 2006 American Forum for Global Education Scholarship, Spring 2006 The National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute, W M , U.S. Naval Academy, 2004 National Humanities Center Summer Institute in Literary Studies Fellowship, Yale, 2003 Bowdoin Prize for Most Outstanding Essay by a Harvard Graduate Student, 2000 Harvard University Graduate Society Fellowship, 1999 Derek Bok Center Certificate of Distinction in Teaching Award, 1998, 1999 Charles Warren Center Summer Grant for Research, 1998, 1999 History of American Civilization Summer Grant for Research, 1998 Harvard University Graduate School Council Summer Grant for Research, 1998 Jacob Javits National Fellowship, 1994-1999  ...

... Women E ali & Empowerment Project Marian University Summer 2017 Porto Alegre, Brazil Global Lea ning A ocia ion of American Colleges and Universities C i ical Anal i of and an engagemen i h complex, in e de enden global em .. Students Should: 1. Become Informed, open-minded, and responsible 2. Seek to understand how their actions affect the local and global 3. Add e he o ld mo e ing and end ing i e together O P o o al In e na ional T a el o Po o Alegre Partners of America, 1964 Peo le o Peo le Kenned Alliance for Legislative Fellows in the Western Hemisphere Indianapolis Chapter High School Youth Ambassadors / US Department of StateFunded Exchange Program Dr. Ana Paula Motta Costa Sk e: e an o he li e of omen d Her work: focuses on child labor in Brazil, and its implications especially on girls/young women Women Righ and Women Em o e men in the Western Hemisphere Women Leade hi Economic Empowerment Violence Against Women ARRIVED! BRAZIL DAY 1 - GRAMADO DAY 2 PORTO ALEGRE DAY 3 ESCOLA ESTADUAL CONEGA JOSE LEAO HARTMANN & GALERA CURTICAO DAY 4 SANTA CRUZ & GROWING UP RIGHT DAY 5 CITY COUNCIL & UNIVERSITY DAY DAY 6 THEMIS & UNIRITTER DAY 7 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE & THE COURTS GAUCHO! Obrigada!  ...

... LITERARY ACTIVISM AND THE BLACK FEMNIST WOMAN WRITER: A STUDY OF ALICE WALKER AND CAROLINA MARIA DE JESUS Marah Withney Leonfils July, 2017 Leonfils 2 In this essay I examine the relationship between black feminism, writing, and the possible ways we might interpret black feminist women s writing as activism. I also explore the crosscultural development of black feminism in the U.S. as compared to Brazil. The varying works of black feminist women, whose writing often reflects the intersectional places of oppression black women (and women of color) routinely face, perhaps unintentionally, creates safe spaces for black women to identify, reaffirm, and feel supported. Black feminism calls for the equitable treatment of all persons and proffers itself as both ideology and practice. Therefore, the safe visibility of black feminist women writers across the globe, a guarantee that is not always certain for black women, especially those in developing countries, is a necessary feat to combat. Safe visibility advocates for harassment free recognition, due payment for all works and basic respect for writers who help contribute to black feminist thought. Within this essay, a brief discourse about the ability for black feminism to safeguard black feminist writers and their words is of the upmost importance to highlight. Writers such as Alice Walker and Carolina Maria de Jesus, whom are further discussed in this essay, demonstrate the range of black feminist women writers to explore social inequalities and the undeniable ways black feminism, the women, writings and works, help maintain a sisterhood of accountability. It is only because of black feminism that I know of Carolina Maria De Jesus. Through her words, may she be seen, heard and advocated for more ever present. KEYWORDS: Black Feminism, Literary Activism, United States, Brazil Leonfils 3 1. Feminism In order to discuss the ever pressing need to evaluate, create and nestle substantive and accessible measures of empowerment for women, it is important to discuss the means of authority that denies women complete autonomy under the guise of equality: patriarchy. Patriarchy prioritizes male or masculine superiority in ways that systemically enforces harmful gendered roles that oppress both men and women and often manifests through social, economic or political male dominance over women. Although the term patriarchy had already existed as a framework for anthropological studies of nomadic societies and the creation of cities, the term was popularized through Suffrage campaigners Susan B. Anthony, Sojourner Truth and Elizabeth Stanton, who relentlessly argued for the recognition of women s inherent ability to contribute just as much, if not more than their male counterparts, especially within political and social spheres in the U.S. Amongst property ownership, salary retention for women, joint custody, and a various discourses about the essential natures and roles of women, through Suffragists work, women were eventually granted the right to vote in America in 1920 (Vilchez 2012). First Wave Feminism, describes the first collaborative movement within the 19th century that centered reforming inequalities women faced socially and legally (Vilchez 2012). First Wave Feminism masterfully demonstrated the need for a clear understanding of women s marginal placement in society, the methodologies that places them there and a robust understanding of the political actions that centers and profits from systemic discrimination of women. As with all social movements though, none is without fault. First Wave Feminism started out with interrelated issues of temperance and the abolishment of slavery in addition to women s voting rights. Unfortunately, as the Fifteenth Amendment legalized the voting rights of Leonfils 4 black men, biological sex seemed to once again prevail in a seemingly bittersweet political equalizer. The identity politics that had rallied women and fueled abolitionist campaigns seemed to only serve the movement s male counterparts. The passage of this amendment caused a division amongst suffragists and abolitionists who were now tasked with singularizing or expanding their political agenda, black male suffrage or women s suffrage. Inadvertently, this sex division weaponized racism against black women suffragists who were thereafter excluded from the movement. Amplifying women s issues proved a multi-range acquisition. This schism between black and white suffragists demonstrated the importance of representation, intersectionality, and diversified political strategizing. 2. Intersectional Feminism Although members of First Wave Feminism attempted in the latter years of the movement to reintegrate black women, black women were for good cause, wary of rejoining. Second Wave Feminism is characterized by an increase in political activity for women cross globally in 1960 (Vilchez 2012). For activists in the U.S., the movement was concurrent with the Civil Rights Movement, as the two groups shared similar anti-war philosophies. As anti-war initiatives attuned to the diverse needs of people facing western imperialism, more pointed assessments of the needs of various minority groups within the U.S. found footing within Second Wave Feminism. Reproductive rights, femininity and sexuality were dominant issues during this wave (Rampton 2015). While perhaps stifled in recognition, this second wave movement garnered the support of individuals who fell outside the parameters of being middle class, cisgender, and white, reflecting a more inclusive feminism cognizant of the existence of women of color. The development of women only spaces emerged and eventually led to development of various ideological praxes. Leonfils 5 Although Second Wave Feminism was more inclusive of women of color, the despondency between women considered the in-group insufficiently addressed the pressing needs of the out-group, people who were both black and woman. Therefore, black women, in order to amplify their very similar but inherently different mistreatments and discrimination on behalf of their sex and race, created their own kind of ideological feminism, in practice and theory. Black Feminism Black Feminist theories arose to address the mishandling of black woman feminists in prior feminist movements. Early feminist radicals such as Angela Davis commentated how, woman was the test, but not every woman seemed to qualify. Black women, of course, were virtually invisible within the protracted campaign for woman suffrage a popular critique that highlighted black women s position: invisible (Davis 1982, p. 140). Writer Ashley Etamadi references in her Feminist Theory Thursday blog post a powerful quote by political activist, feminist and writer Assata Shakur, where Shakur boldly claims that, black people will never be free unless Black women participate in every aspect of the struggle (Etemadi 2017). In her article Black Feminism and Intersectionality , feminist theorist Sharon Smith acknowledges black legal scholar, feminist and author Kimberle Crenshaw as offering what is means to be in every aspect of the struggle citing Crenshaw s 1989 essay, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics where Crenshaw coins the term intersectional (Smith 2014). Intersectionality is the study of how the various intersections of class, race, sex and gender identity remain inextricably bound to each other in terms of how social or political equity is proffered or barred. Intersectionality notes that people s various identities and makeups are Leonfils 6 affected at differing frequencies in their fight for all around freedom. The discrimination black women particularly experience often does not fit the parameters of neat legal categories of either racism or sexism (Smith 2014). The split of the first wave moment created separate black women salons and groups. Black Feminism became a popular political theory as it addressed the sexism and racism women of color experienced in both the Civil Rights and Women s Movements. Black Feminism became an increasingly purported radical movement because of its commitment to struggling against racial, (hetero)sexual, class oppression for all and to amplify the voices of black women. Womanism Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender states Alice Walker, womanist, poet, and activist whose term womanist arose in her 1983 book I Sea ch f O Womanism is described by Walker as the opposite of M he Ga de . girlish i.e. frivolous, irresponsible, not serious, a black feminist or feminist of color (xii). It s viewed as a woman who loves other women, sexually and/or non-sexually or a woman who appreciates and prefers women s culture, women s emotional flexibility (values tears as natural counterbalance of laughter), and women s strength (xi). A womanist sometimes loves individual men, sexually and/or nonsexually (xi). A womanist is committed to survival and wholeness of entire people, male and female (xi). Womanism is a haven or refugee for those for whom feminism, due to its racist nuances, has all but desecrated the term feminist. Womanism functions as a safe place also because it is ideologically seen as a non-separatist movement as it appears to provide an avenue to foster stronger relationships between black women and black men, a critique that plagued earlier waves feminism (Collins 1996, p. 11). As with black feminism, the limits to both Leonfils 7 ideological theories are seen in their inability to broaden support amongst those who are black and third world. Black feminism does offer a praxis that seeks to include black women throughout the diaspora. Black feminism manifests in duplicitous ways and has burrowed a niche in writing. Black feminists such as those aforementioned continue to offer their feminist theories through writing whether for leisure, entertainment, profit, teaching, or as a form of resistance. No matter its function, black feminist writing can fashion between black women across the globe what society cannot readily offer nor sustain reciprocity in sisterhood and community accountability. Black feminism is a conduit that not only harbors safe spaces for black women s sociopolitical thought, it also helps to mitigate the methodological erasure of the literary voices of black women in literature and feminist discourse. Educational and economic barriers to women writers are an issue that plagues the dispersion of black feminist thought. Despite controlling those factors, sporadic and narrowly circulating newsletters, position papers, journals, and magazines resulted in the in-circling of feminist theories rather than its dispersal amongst various publication sectors (Gilliam 2013, p. 2). Gilliam states how black women s intellectualism has traditionally been ignored due to a lack of access to education, the portrayal of black women as uneducated and the perception of black females as incapable of intellectual thought (Gilliam 2013, p. 2). Though, as Collins states, prioritizing a heightened visibility for black feminist women aides in social activism as: This outsider within statue has provided a special standpoint on self, family, and society for Afro-American women. A careful review of the emerging Black feminist literature reveals that many Black intellectuals, especially those in touch with their Leonfils 8 marginality in academic settings, tap this standpoint in producing distinctive analyses of race, class and gender (Collins 1986, p. 14-15). Consequently, black feminist women writers, particularly due to their specific experiences with social marginalization, are sources of pointed examinations of society whose purview can contribute guidance on redressing social inequality. Therefore, the importance behind amplifying black women s feminist writing is that they serve as perpetual indicators of the conditions of our sociological issues and the maltreatment of those who are consistently affected. In the remainder of this essay, I will examine the literary activism of Black American feminist writer Alice Walker in addition to the political discourse of Afro-Brazilian feminist writer Carolina Maria De Jesus, women whose writing have had different levels of visibility and for which black feminism must continue to amplify. 3. Alice Walker and Political Action and Discourse in the U.S. Alice Walker is a widely known Black American Feminist and Activist who grew up in a racially divided south. Walker found her solace in readings and in writing poetry. As a social worker, she became active in the Civil Rights Movement and began to gain recognition for her collection of poetry Once. After this first publication, Walker emerged as a proliferate voice in the black feminist movement. The Color Purple, Walker s most famous work, garnered her national acclaim. The novel was set in the early 1900s and explored how Celie, the novel s protagonist navigated her life under patriarchal and heteronormative domination. The black women within the novel all interact varyingly with patriarchy and the severity of its systemic reach. Walker s The Color Purple, championed for various black women while challenging the myths of the uneducated of black woman and the angry black woman, archetypes of black Leonfils 9 women that were usually depicted in racist caricatures such as the Black Jezebel or the Mammy. Walker s story was nestled in a feminist story line. The novel features a dark skinned black woman, sisterhood among sex workers and menial labor women, cultural heritage as distanced but nuanced roots between Black American women and African women, and lastly, the inherent power and perseverance of black womanity. Sisterhood functions as an overarching theme for the liberation of both Celie s body and her words. The relationships formed between Shug, Nettie, Sofia and Celie demonstrate the love language of sisterhood and the at times all too familiar burden of black womanhood. For these women, they share a relationship that is binding irrespective of blood, a sort of kinship that is formed thoroughly in their blackness. Their natural twists, hips, hair and skin all play important roles in their black womanity in as much as their words fortifies and reaffirms their humanness as black women, black lesbian women, black women of differing economic backgrounds, black women in all molds they might present. This novel expertly highlights the afflictions black women face when viewed in the framework of the strong black woman, a categorization of black women that at best frames them as unbreakable silent suffers or plagues them with domestic violence at worst. The Color Purple accordingly, served as literary safe space for black women in 1985. Three years after the novels circulation in 1982, The Color Purple landed a big screen role. The impact of the novel turned film continues beyond screen play. Victoria Bond describes how: Black women turned out in droves to see the film. We continue to reference it today because it breaks a certain cultural silence about abuse. Respectability politics imperil black women by demanding we stay mute; they insist that black people are a monolith Leonfils 10 whose reputation must be protected and preserved, whatever the cost. This extends to art, which appears only to be acceptable if black characters are struggling to get better, to put checkered pasts firmly in the past. But the truth is obvious. We aren t interested in stories about the perfect; we re interested in stories about the real (Bond 2015). Erica E. Townsend-Bell in her article Writing the Way to Feminism, recalls how some scholars have noted the explosion of writing by women of color in the 1980s as one of the mechanisms by which other women of color were persuaded to enter the feminist movement and attitudes were transformed (2012, p.128). Townsend-Bell then further explicates how this concept influences the reader to believe no feminist writings occurred prior to 1980. More so, Townsend-Bell argues that writing was a mechanism for debate on the question of commonalities among women, the definition of feminism(s), and deliberation regarding the possibilities for a group called women of color or third-world women (2012, p. 129). This amended focus was accomplished via a shift in control over the writing space (2012, p. 129). Walker s literary ascent did not end with The Color Purple but the notoriety of the novel and film exemplifies not only the range of black feminist writers but also their ability to transcended written text. The fluidity of black women representation occurred in both text and film. This amplified image is what continues to herald The Color Purple as a timeless classic. It was made by a black woman, for black women and supported by black women. It is black feminism in action and a resistance of mainstream perceptions of black womanhood. 4. Afro-Brazilian Feminism While Feminism in America has gone through various waves, women s rights and feminism in Brazil has had slower growth. In 1932, Brazil granted women the right to vote following countries such as Canada and the United States, a nation often admired by early Leonfils 11 Brazilian feminists says June E. Hahner in her article, The Beginnings of the Women s Suffrage Movement in Brazil (1979, p. 200). Prior, in 1989, Brazilian women had attempted to demand their right to vote but could not counter the male resistance or fears for the fate of the family and home (Hahner 1979, p. 200). Brazilian women faced similar barriers to equitable treatment that women in other countries faced as well. Education, though accessed by an increasing number of women in the late nineteenth century proved still a topic of inaccessibility as (large segments of population remained illiterate (Hahner 1979, p. 200). By 1920, various middle-class women were able to find employment outside of their homes and were in competition for government positions of high levels. Hahner characterizes this increase in women presence as an achievement aided by the conclusion of the First World War and the examples of other advanced nations but particularly the personal links established between Brazilian feminists and international suffrage leaders, spurred the formation of formal women's rights organizations in Brazil (Hahner 1979, p. 201). Bertha Lutz is characterized as the principal leader of the suffrage movement in Brazil. Similarly to the feminist claims of American suffragists, Lutz argued that Brazilian women also merited equality and political responsibilities (Hahner 1979, p. 201). The Suffrage movement in Brazil held certain distinctions from Suffrage movements around the globe. For instance, although there was no marked opposition to women s suffrage with regards to government, the Brazilian suffragists lacked the English suffragettes' numbers and discipline and could not exert the same pressure on their government (Hahner 1979, p. 202). In addition to this, Brazilian suffragists did not believe that women would become conscious of their worth only through independence of men and male movements (Hahner 1979, p. 202). Intermittent social adversities such as government corruption, a faltering economy and at times the dissolution of a Leonfils 12 democratic political process further challenged the women s movement. Lastly, perhaps an overarching ideological difference that was far more divided among American feminists which differed from their Latin American feminist counterparts is how Latin American feminists have rarely expressed a sense of competition with and isolation from men ; a notion from which they tend to pride themselves on (Hahner 1979, p. 202). There seemed to be no clear need to identify separately or center the separate needs of Brazilian women. Despite this, Brazilian suffragists, though small, continued to organize. Following Vargas dictatorship where there were no elections held, Brazilian women gained the right to vote in 1946. In 1962, married women were given the liberty to work without prior authorization from their spouses, an ability to receive inheritance, and the right to ask for child custody. In 1988, the constitution under article five was rewritten to include women as having equals rights and duties as men. In 1996, a quota system was passed requiring that every political party held a minimum of 20% women. Although Brazilian feminists had orchestrated various accomplishments: Afro-Brazilian women occupied marginal positions in both the Black and Feminist movements. Within the Black Movement males saw females as helpers while black and white females in the Feminist Movement clashed in ideological struggles over issues such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, and the importance of race in the feminist struggle. Indeed, while Brazilian women of all racial backgrounds considered themselves members of the Feminist movement, the majority was middle and upper class white women who refused to address race throughout much of the 1970s and 1980s (Gilliam 2013, p. 6). Leonfils 13 5. Carolina Maria De Jesus and Political Action and Discourse in Brazil Carolina Maria De Jesus is a widely unknown Afro-Brazilian feminist writer who lived in the shanty slums in Sao Paulo. Child of Dark, the novel that brought her widespread recognition featured her narrative as a black, poor and illegitimate woman in abject poverty. While in Brazil, it is evident that the scholarship of black women writers is faintly existent. De Jesus is regarded as Brazil s only favela writer to have published in 1960 (Yan 2014). De Jesus taught herself to read and write after her limited schooling in primary for only two years. De Jesus kept ethnographic records of her favela and did not adhere to societal cues such as marriage (Yan 2014). Due to the excessive scenes of domestic violence she witnessed, De Jesus refused to marry, a thing that was uncommon at the time. The collection of diary entries that characterizes De Jesus literary work highlighted the endemic poverty and struggle for humanity that circumvented the residents of favelas. De Jesus accounts of hunger, poverty and the maltreatment of poor black women reflected a narrative that was all but seen in literature of the same time. The publishing of De Jesus Child of Dark gave her international recognition but in a twisted sense of marginalization and fraud, De Jesus was denied the royalties of her translated writing and continued to struggle to make ends meet up until she died (Yan 2014). De Jesus life as an Afro-Brazilian feminist writer reflects how the Afro-Brazilian female writing tradition has historically been absent due to the critical establishment s failure to include their production in the mainstream literary canon (Gilliam 2013, p. 9). Leia Maria, a student at Fundao Escola Tcnica Liberato Salzano Vieira da Cunha, describes her relationship with the favela writing as being limited to only a few poems a few times in school, while describing how while [she] was studying Brazilian literature [they] read a lot of books that were Leonfils 14 written by men. Maria was introduced to De Jesus by a black woman professor. Her description of the lack of women writers in literature harrowingly mimics De Jesus own examination of the lack of women in positions of political power. De Jesus illustrates an exchange with her mother where De Jesus describes how: When I was a girl my dream was to be a man to defend Brazil, because I read the history of Brazil and became aware that war existed. I read the masculine names of the defenders of the country, then I said to my mother why don t you make me become a man. She replied if you walk under a rainbow, you ll become a man When a rainbow appeared I went running in its direction (De Jesus 1962, p. 47). In her novel, De Jesus aptly describes the conditions of her favela with intentional prose lined with entries of poetic drama, sentimental musings of sweet days and a jarring illustration of favela life. In an entry that alludes to her writing as an escape, De Jesus describes how she: Got out of bed to write. When I write I think I live in a golden castle that shines in the sunlight. The woods are silver and the panes are diamonds. My view is overlooking a garden and I gaze on flowers of all kinds. I must create this atmosphere of fantasy to forget that I am in a favela (De Jesus 1962, p. 52). De Jesus commentary reflects the reality of poverty that poor women must endure often alone. Her blackness is then reaffirmed in subtle entries that hint at a sense of self love that is widely unapparent or socially accepted. Vera Daisy, an Afro-Brazilian Journalist who researches and reports on the social movement of Black feminism in Brazil describes how Afro-Brazilian women live in a country marked by racism but that black women maintain their families in all facets of their life (2017). She notes that it is structural forces that keep black women invisible especially in literary history (2017). Despite the systemic features of Brazil that Leonfils 15 render black women invisible, De Jesus describes a thorough sense of pro-blackness when describing an exchange between her and a few directors of a circus who exclaimed to De Jesus It s a shame you re black (De Jesus 1962, p. 57). In an internal dialogue with herself, De Jesus mentions how they were forgetting that I adore my black skin and my kinky hair. The negro hair is more educated than the white man s hair. Because with negro hair, where you put it, it stays. It s obedientIf reincarnation exists I want to come back black (De Jesus 1962, p. 57). What should be maintained about De Jesus is the authors own descriptions of the liberative power of writing. She states throughout her novel, I pick up paper. I m proving that I m alive, at least (De Jesus 1962, p. 12). On another account, De Jesus says when I m nervous I don t like to argue. I prefer to write. Every day I write. I sit in the yard and write (1962, p. 15). De Jesus minimal visbility occurs at the hands of structural powers but is being amplified by the Afro-Brazilian feminist scholars. The safe place that De Jesus creates in her novel is commentary for all people suffering from the burden of social marginalization and similar to Walker s The Color Purple, reaffirms the functionality of black feminist writing as sources of power, liberation and voice. De Jesus continues to slowly but surely find prominence as an important contributor to Brazil s Afro-Brazilian feminist thought, as the vehicle, black feminism, ought to perpetually foster a home for black feminist women writers. The concept of women s empowerment isn t just a discussion of amplifying voices, it must conceptually argue for the transparency and representation of all women. As with popular feminist movements, the notion of invisibility seemed widespread but the reality of the scope demonstrated far more stratified accesses to visibility for women of color, disabled women and queer women. Globally, the lack of equitable women s rights is an epidemic issue that must be unrooted but ignorance of the social problems women of color face due to race and sex amongst Leonfils 16 class and gender identification is often side swept, ignored or insufficiently redressed, a consistent mishandling of black women that is pandemic to women s rights and feminism. The work of redressing global inequalities all women face must involve the examination of the barriers that plague black women s visibility. Black feminist scholars have already begun to pave the way. Black womanhood or sisterhood counteracts these barriers. Social activism to address women s issues was long thought to reside in sociopolitical spheres and institutional law. Black feminists, womanists and writers of that genre and school of thought have demonstrated the ability for authorship, writing and scholarship to function as safe places to contest a white supremacist, capitalist and cishetero-patriarchal society that routinely erases black bodies, especially women. Black Feminist women writers and their scholarship is social activism because their resistance begins in the body and we must be willing to hear their words. Leonfils 17 Works Cited Bond, Victoria. The Color Purple is a Cultural Touchstone for Black Female Self-Love. New Republic. 17 March, 2015. Collins, Patricia Hill. Learning from the Outsider Within: The Sociological Significance of Black Feminist Thought. Social Problems: Special Theory Issue, vol. 33, no. 6, 1986, pp.14-32. Collins, Patricia Hill. What s in a name? Womanism, black feminism, and beyond. The Black Scholar. vol. 26, no. 1, 1996, pp. 9-41. Daisy, Vera, Personal Communication, 8 June 2017. Web. Davis, Angela Y. Women, Race & Class. New York: Random House, 1982. De Jesus, Carolina Maria. Child of Dark: The Diary of Carolina Maria de Jesus. Translated by David St. Clair, Penguin Group, 1962. Etemadi, Ashley. "Feminist Theorist Thursdays: Assata Shakur." FEM. Femmagazine.com, 20 May 2017. Web. 26 May 2017. Gilliam, Doris Waddell. I ha e K Wh I a : A Af ca a W a A a f Af - Brazilian Identity in the Literature of Miriam Alves, Esmeralda Ribeiro and Conceicao Evaristo. Florida State University, 2013. Hahner, June E. The Beginnings of the Women s Suffrage Movement in Brazil. Signs. vol. 5, no. 1, 1979, pp. 200-204. Hull, Gloria T., Patricia Bell. Scott, and Barbara Smith. But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women's Studies. New York: Feminist, 1982. Maria, Leia, Personal Communication, 3 July 2017. Web. Leonfils 18 Rampton, Martha. "Four Waves of Feminism." Pacific University Oregon. Pacificu.edu, 25 Oct. 2015. Web. 15 May 2017. Smith, Sharon. "Black Feminism and Intersectionality." International Socialist Review. Isreview.org, 17 Dec. 2014. Web. 20 May 2017. Townsend-Bell, Erica E. Writing the Way to Feminism. Signs. Vol. 38, no 1, 2012, pp.127152. Vilchez, Jenny. Week 14: Davis and Lorde Berkeley City College Feminist Philosophy. 29 Apr. 2012. Web. 20 May 2017. Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1982. Yan, Sarah. "Carolina Maria De Jesus: Life in Favelas." Borgenproject.org. The Borgen Project, 11 July 2014. Web. 20 May 2017.  ...

... THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN Maresa E. Kelly July, 2017 THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 2 Abstract This paper compares the sexualization of Brazilian women and women from the United States. By juxtaposing the standard of beauty in Brazil to the standard of beauty in the States, comparisons could be made between what men, women, and the media consider a , and how the definition changes between these groups. In order to reach a conclusion, participant observation was done in various regions of Brazil, during which student interviews took place. KEYWORDS: Sexualization, Beauty, Brazil, Women, Media THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 3 SITUATING THE ISSUE IN THE UNITED STATES The sexualization of women by the media is everywhere. All one has to do is turn on the TV, walk down the street and see the millions of billboards, or scroll through any social media feed. Women are constantly told that the right thing to do is be or . Everything we, as women, do has one purpose - make ourselves desirable. However, although women are constantly bombarded with such images, they are still blamed for their own sexualization. Journalist Paulina Pinsky claims that this is not something that can be overlooked. When Pinsky attended the Women in the World Summit in 2014, the topic of the sexualization of women in the media was discussed. The panel reacted in a way that was appalling to Pinsky, to say the least. Some comments included: girls are taking pictures of themselves with their tongues out. Boys Ma they should go to girls school to are sending ! ? I I understand why want to see a!, a of doing their math homework, girls (Pinsky, 2014, para. 4-5). These comments epitomize the miscommunication about the sexualization of females by the media. The panelists at the convention were meant to be . The purpose of the conference was to inspire and empower women - how had they ended up getting blamed for their own sexualization? The answer is simple - there is a clear disconnect between the media and a women. Moreover, many people they see in the realize that women and young girls a what a (Pinsky, 2014, para. 7). Pinsky goes on to state that she not describe [herself] as a until about six months ago. Until then, when asked to describe herself, she would have simply given a physical description of herself (lingering on the aspects of her body she thought were acceptable, but being sure to mention the areas that needed improvement). She goes on to claim that she a THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 4 the only one that did this. When she would see friends and family members, they would tell her about my body that was . Brigit Katz claims that when we discuss beauty, we tend to talk about models, movies and unattainable standards of perfection. However, she claims that a study done by Dove shows that more than ever before women claim that their conception of beauty is shaped by the public a in and social media. Katz goes on to say that this influence is not always a positive one: A 2014 Dove study found that women wrote 5 million disparaging tweets about beauty, most of which were about themselves. Seventy-eight percent of the survey sample went on to say that they feel the portrayal of women on social media is unrealistic (Katz, 2015, para. 3). Young people receive negative images of women from a plethora of outlets - one of which is pop music. The T 15 currently has 6 songs that have lyrics depicting women in a negative light and very few that empower them. The hit song, The Shape of You by Ed Sheeran, for example, states: I'm in love with the shape of you/We push and pull like a magnet do/Although my heart is falling /I in love with your body (Sheeran, 2017). These lyrics serve as constant reminders to young women that their greatest value to society is supposedly their body. As a young person, it is very difficult to feel empowered as a woman when every time a song comes on the radio it depicts women as objects that are controlled by men. Pop music is particularly destructive because young people look to music (and the artists that produce it) to see what it means to be attractive, and to see what the ideal lifestyle looks like. However, when these songs and artists are all about the sexualization of women, it has devastating effects. A study done by the University at Buffalo (N.Y.) contends that the portrayal of women in popular culture and media over the last several decades has increasingly sexualized, THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN even 5 (USA Today, 2011, p. 14-15). The researchers examined Rolling Stone magazine covers from 1967-2009 to measure and compare the sexualization of men and women. The researchers found that a of women and men indeed have become more sexualized over time and women continue to be more frequently sexualized than men. For example, women are more often photographed in less clothing, in provocative positions, etc. In the 1960s, 11% of men and 44% of women were sexualized. In the 2000s, 17% of men and 83% of women were sexualized- of those images, 2% of men and 61% of women were a (USA Today, 2011, p. 14-15). Although it is clear that sexualization is an issue that effects both men and women, clearly the issue plagues women more so. Although it for a woman to be depicted as bad , the harm comes when women are depicted as objects that are simply designed to be objects of pleasure for someone else. Many young women are easily impacted by the sexualization of women by the media. They open Instagram and are bombarded with unrealistic images of women. From the celebrities that photoshop their pictures before posting them, to the various ads that show women nearly nude, to their own friends that perfect their makeup and filter before posting a picture. Sadly, this is the reality of today world. Like Paulina Pinsky, girls often think they are nothing but their physical features. They think that if they are skinny, or big, a man will never want them. Even worse, they believe that because a man would never want them, they have less worth as a woman. This is the constant struggle women face - they are constantly told what it means to be beautiful, and that our natural beauty is not enough. An article from Elite Daily (self-described as a site for and by women who are discovering the http://elitedaily.com/about/) entitled L Dangers Of Perceiving Instagram As R a describes Through A Filter: The daily struggles to differentiate THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN reality versus social media. One of I a a models, Essena O N 6 (see index page for photographs 1A & 2A) recently took strides to expose the truth about her Instagram account by a her Instagram account to be named Social Media Is Not Real Life para. 1). Moreover, O N (Arundel, 2015, went back on old posts and changed her captions, exposing the truth behind each picture (admitting that at times she would even be paid to diet extensively in order to the perfect ) (Arundel, 2015, para. 3). Although the media definitely causes women to have unrealistic expectations for beauty, women can reclaim the media as their own. It clear that the media has a great deal of power over us all, and this can be extremely destructive. However, acknowledging the power that the media has is the first important step to reclaiming beauty. Many women have taken it upon themselves to reclaim what it means to beautiful. Brigit Katz notes the multitude of beauty bloggers that have emerged in response to the hyper-sexualization of women by the media. These women tackle the traditional definition of beauty in society by posting unedited pictures and videos of themselves - blemishes and all (Katz, 2015, para. 4-8). Women like this are a reminder that as women, we always have the power to reclaim what it means to be beautiful. The Canadian W Health Network defines the hyper-sexualization of girls as depicted or treated as sexual objects. It also means sexuality that is inappropriately imposed on girls through media, marketing or products directed at them that encourages them to act in adult sexual a (2012, para. 3.) Examples of this include marketing thongs, or lacy bras to young children. Simply typing in examples. a a or - a a in the web offers up more THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 7 SITUATING SEXUALIZATION IN BRAZIL Brazil is often called land of beauty. That said, the sexualization of women and standards that women are held to in terms of physical appearance is increasingly harsh in Brazil. Larry Rohter, author of the article, In the Land of Bold Beauty, a Trusted Mirror Cracks, claims that B a may be the most body-conscious society in the world (Rohter, 2007). However, up until recent years, B a idea of beauty has been different than the rest of the (particularly North America or Europe.) Brazilian beauty traditionally meant that they had a little more flesh, distributed differently to emphasize the bottom over the or Susi who, a a a shaped (Rohter, 2007). This idea of corpo de (see index page for photograph 1B) is epitomized by the doll the national aesthetic, was darker and fleshier than her counterparts (Rohter, 2007, parg. 10). However, the invasion of the Ba a , models, celebrities, TV, and medical makeovers are leading Brazil further and further away from their traditional concepts of beauty. Mary del Priore, a historian and co-author of T states that traditionally, However, today in Brazil History of Private Life in Brazil, was a sign of beauty, and thinness was to be dreaded. are thin and the poor who are a (Rohter, 2007, para. 5). Although both the traditional and modern beliefs about women have the potential for harsh consequences, traditionally, women were taught to embrace their bodies. That is a sharp contrast to today - a government study released in November of 2007 claims that percentage of the population taking appetite-suppressants more than doubled between 2001 and 2005, making Brazil the world champion in the consumption of diet (Rohter, 2007, para. 12). THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN Del Priore claims that this shift is a 8 decision that reflects changing roles. She claims that as women move out of the home more and more, they want to feel powerful and free. One way to do this is to adopt international standards of beauty, and leave those of traditional Brazilian society by the wayside. In order to achieve this a a beauty, Latin American women are increasingly willing to spend money on beauty products. In 2014, Brazilians spent $30.248 billion on beauty and personal care products (Conger, 2016, p. 70). Brazilian customers are crucial to the cosmetic industry. Lucy Conger, author of Beauty is in the Eye of the Beholder (and the Cash Register), relays that the Brazilian sector of L O a ranks 4th in the world: [I] 2015, L O a consummated its purchase of the Rio-based Niely brand of hair care and coloring products which had sales of R$405 million ($113 million) (Conger, 2016, p. 70). Marle dos Santos Alvarenga and Karin Louise Lenz Dunker, authors of Media Influence and Body Dissatisfaction in Brazilian Female Undergraduate Students, studied possible associations between media influence and body satisfaction in a sample of Brazilian female college undergraduates. Because evidence from literature demonstrates that media often acts as an important bias in weight and eating problems (i.e binge eating, anorexia, bulimia, etc), and because it is known that frequent exposure to thin bodies by the media (e.g. magazines and TV) could lead to body dissatisfaction, Santos and Dunker hypothesized that the greater exposure one had to media, the higher the body dissatisfaction would be. Santos and Dunker found that 64.4% of students desired to be smaller, 21.8% desired to be equal and 13.9% to be bigger than their actual (2014, Abstract). Prior to participating in the study, all women answered the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire. It was found that the women scored higher on the SATAQ than any other THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN population around the world. Moreover, 9 younger and overweight students were the most influenced by the media. Santos and Dunker conclude that B the relation with body image, it is also affirmed that SATAQ's subscales have strong relation with weight control a (2016, p. 2). By making this claim, Santos and Dunker acknowledge that many factors are at play when discussing body image. However, it is an irrefutable fact that the media negatively influences B a a ideas of body image. Brazil, the land of beauty, is constantly looked to by other countries for standards of what it means to be beautiful. Brazilian women are constantly portrayed by other international media outlets as hyper sexualized. While I acknowledge that it may be ethnocentristic, when American women think of Brazilian, the first thing that comes to mind may very well be a Brazilian bikini wax. This simple fact is a prime example of Brazilian women being sexualized by the world. Moreover, Brazil is well known for their carnival celebrations. During this celebration, women often wear extremely revealing clothing, dance in a manner that dehumanizes them, and often become objects in the eyes of Brazilian men, and the rest of the world (Barbara, 2014). The Brazilian culture is one of over-sexualization. Sex isn a bad thing. However, when women are degraded and looked at as objects- things to be used for pleasure then thrown away, it is time that we, as a society, reevaluate the images we are producing. THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 10 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION AND IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH After undergoing participant observation and research in Brazil from June 1-10 in Rio Grande do Sol, I find that the idea of beauty for Brazilian women has been corrupted by the media. The main method of research that helped to reach this conclusion was interviewing Brazilian citizens. Two interviews were particularly helpful in reaching these conclusions- Luane Mattos and Vera Daisy Barcellos. Interviews took place at venues including Canta Brasil School, a Brazilian Community Center, a City Council building, and the non-profit organization, THEMIS The first interview took place with Luane Mattos - a Brazilian student. When asked W a do you think is considered beautiful in B a ? she answered, I would have to say blonde girls with green or blue eyes and big thighs. When asked why, she claimed that it was because of television shows like P na TV and Big Brother Brazil. These shows show countless women in bikinis, mini skirts, and crop tops [see index page for photographs (1C & 2C for Pnico na TV and 3C for Big Brother Brazil)]. These shows are extremely popular, therefore they have extraordinary influence over Brazilian culture. Particularly due to the fact that the women who star in these TV shows are meant to be a , everyday people. For this reason, their physique seems more attainable. This is, of course, a falsity, because the stars of reality TV shows are hand-picked to look and act a certain way. Moreover, the media mass produces white, European women on TV. In an interview with Vera Daisy Barcellos, she claimed that see any black on TV. Vera has been fighting for black beauty- curly, natural hair, black skin and noses, etc.) all of her life. Vera went on to say that you do see black women, they are hyper-sexualized. She mentioned this was particularly present during Carnival festivities in Brazil. THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 11 Brazilian Carnival is an event that makes millions of dollars off of the exploitation and sexualization of men and women- particularly black women. A principal example of this is the former Carnival star Rosa Luna (see index page for photographs 1-2D). Luna, an AfroUruguayan star who a synonymous with Montevideo's annual Carnival from the 1950s until her death in 1993 (Sztainbok, 2014), was a national icon, solely because of her physical features. Due to Rosa Luna sexualization by the media, Brazil, and the world, black women in Brazilian culture feel extremely misrepresented. When black women are present in the media, they are seen not as strong, powerful women, but as objects to be fantasized about. Due to their blatant lack of accurate representation in the first place, they obviously, (and justly) feel ignored not only by the media but by their own society. Overall, regardless of age, race, or sexual orientation, there was an overwhelming consensus among women interviewed. The media consistently makes women feel that their natural bodies are not adequate. However, what the media wants (a thin, white woman, at times forced to starve herself to meet societies expectations), and what men want (a woman) seem to be starkly different. Once again, making it difficult to be a woman in Brazilian culture. THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 12 COMPARATIVE CONCLUSIONS BETWEEN BRAZIL AND THE UNITED STATES After comparing research done locally in the United States, as well as abroad in various regions of Brazil, I conclude that both the United States and Brazil have warped concepts of beauty due to the media. Although the United States and Brazil have obvious styles, fashions, etc., that are relative to each country, there are several overlapping trends. Trends that women generally follow in both of these countries include desiring to be thin, having tan skin, big hair, white/straight teeth, long legs, and a large butt and breasts. Furthermore, in both the United States and Brazil women feel added pressure from certain magazines (Cosmopolitan, Vogue, Elle) that are targeted toward. These magazines use women female models that are extremely thin. However, other magazines (Playboy, Maxim, GQ) that are generally targeted toward men use female models that are . This makes it extremely difficult to be a woman in our society- the media is constantly throwing conflicting images into their consumers laps. Therefore, at the end of the day, it makes it difficult for anyone to be comfortable in their own skin. In another interview with college student Daniela Dora Eilberg, light was shed on the high rate of butt lift procedures done in Brazil. Eilberg mentioned that one reason Brazil has such a high number of procedures is due to people coming to Brazil from all over the world because have the best surgeons there are (personal communication, June 4, 2017). Overall, Brazil and the United States alike have a long way to go before being able to claim that their media outlets offer accurate representations of women. Both countries citizens have been negatively affected by the media harsh judgments and boundaries of what a a a I guess I is but as student Luane Mattos so elegantly phrased it: If I not beautiful just have to be beautiful somewhere else. (personal communication, June 8, THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 13 2017). It is so important to acknowledge the disparities women must face, if we can ever hope to gain equality for all. THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 14 Index 2A (Social News Daily, 2015) 1A (Social News Daily, 2015) 1B (Menezes, 2015) 2C (Beraldo, 2013) 1C (Beraldo, 2013) 3C (Beraldo, 2013) 2A THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 1D (Homenajearon a la D a de Ebano, 2015) 2D (Homenajearon a la D a de Ebano, 2015) 15 THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 16 References Arundel, Maryanna. (2015, November). Life Through A Filter: The Dangers Of Perceiving Instagram As Reality. Elite Daily. Retrieved from http://elitedaily.com/life/culture/essena-oneill-instagram/1270898/ Barbara, Vanessa. (2014, April 23). Life as a Brazilian Woman. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/24/opinion/barbara-life-as-a-brazilianBeraldo, G. (2013, August 22). Posts sobre panico na tv em PIN | Portal Ibope e Notcias. Retrieved from https://tvibopenews.wordpress.com/tag/panico-na-tv/ Conger, Lucy. (2016). Beauty Is in the Eye of the Beholder. Latin Trade (Spanish), 24 (1), 7073. Retrieved from login.forward.marian.edu/login?url=http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=117896592&scope=site Jonette. (2015, November). Essena O N : S a Media Is Not Real L . Retrieved from: http://socialnewsdaily.com/59332/essena-oneill-not-real-life Homenajearon a la D a de E a Rosa Luna a 80 aos de su leyenda. (2015, June 25). Retrieved from http://notasculturales.org.uy/homenajearon-a-la-diosa-de-ebano-rosaluna-a-80-anos-de-su-leyenda/ Hypersexualized Women Say "Come Hither". (2011). USA Today Magazine, 140(2799), 14-15. Is Reality TV Messing with Your Head? (2012, December). Scholastic Choices, 28(3), 12-17. Retrieved from login.forward.marian.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true& db=aph&AN=82538411&scope=site. Katz, Brigit. (2015, April). "New study shows impact of social media on beauty standards." THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN 17 The New York Times. Retrieved from http://nytlive.nytimes.com/womenintheworld/2015/04/03/new-study-shows-impact-ofsocial-media-on-beauty-standards/ Menezes, K. (2015, February 18). Tipos de Corpo - Valorize-se. Retrieved from http://www.cheiadepapo.com.br/2014/03/tipos-de-corpo-valorize-se.html Misener, Jessica. "(2012, February 28). Half Of Women Are Dependent On Makeup, Study Says. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from TheHuffingtonPost.com Pinsky, Paulina. (2014, June 3). Don't Blame Girls for Their Own Sexualization. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from TheHuffingtonPost.com. Lindsayrr. (2012). Skeleton In The Closet: When Did S Become The New S ?" Retrieved from https://lindsayssocialchangethroughthelens.wordpress.com/2012/09/24/skeleton-in-thecloset-when-did-skinny-become-the-new-sexy/ Rohter, Larry. (2007). In the Land of Bold Beauty, a Trusted Mirror Cracks. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/14/weekinreview/14roht.html Sheeran, Ed. (2017). Shape of You. Retrieved from https://genius.com/Ed-sheeran-shape-of-youSztainbok, Vannina. (2013, September). Exposing Her Body, Revealing the Nation: The Carnival Vedette, Black Femininity and the Symbolic Order." Social Identities, 19 (5), 592-606. doi:10.1080/13504630.2013.835508 Santos Alvarenga, Marle Dos, and Karin Louise Lenz Dunker. (2014). Media influence and body dissatisfaction in Brazilian female undergraduate students. Revista Mexicana de THE MEDIA S IMPACT ON BEAUTY AND THE SEXUALIZATION OF WOMEN Trastornos Alimentarios, 5 (1), 20-28. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2007152314703738 18  ...

... QUEER PEOPLE IN BRAZIL AND THE UNITED STATES: BRIDGING THE GAP Kayla Bledsoe July, 2017 2 The LGBT+ community is generally grouped into one big group with all the same needs by media, organizations, and people. However, LGBT+ people have different concerns and needs based on age, race, ability, and so many other identities to which they can also fall under. Additionally, gender and sexual diversity greatly differ in needs within the community. This research focuses on the history of social movements for, and politics concerning primarily cisgender women of a sexual minority (lesbian, bisexual, etc.) in America and Brazil. Traditional research methods were primarily used to discover the reality of queer people in America, such as availability to resources and mental health. However, my research of the reality of the community in Brazil is primarily based on participant observation by interviews, question and answer sessions with politicians, as well as daily conversations (or lack thereof). With this research, commonalities along with differences were found between the two countries regarding history, politics, struggles, and victories for LGBT+ women, which ultimately lead to my conclusion of proposed solutions for the betterment of women in the queer community. KEYWORDS: LGBT+, Gender Equality, United States, Brazil 3 While gender equality is an essential human right, it has yet to be realized in the 21st century. Women make up half of the world s population, yet they experience unequal access to education, resources, and opportunities. In many parts of the world, women are underrepresented in the governmental bodies that hold decision-making power over their lives. Across cultures and nations, women have been historically and systematically relegated as inferior to men. Women's empowerment means nothing less than women realizing their full human potential. The United Nations recognizes that women s empowerment encompasses five components: women s sense of self-worth; their right to have and to determine choices; their right to have access to opportunities and resources; their right to have the power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home; and their ability to influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally (United Nations, 2017, para. 4). Realizing equal rights and opportunities for women throughout the world remains a daunting imperative for this generation. Yet, as we work for equality, we must remember that woman is not a single identity. Women cannot be restricted to straight or cisgender women. While women around the world and in America share common experiences, an accurate understanding of women s empowerment and equality must reflect the diversity of women s lives. This research focuses on the lives of women in the LGBT+ communities of the world, acknowledging their specific histories of discrimination and activism. Specifically, this research is on the history of the queer movement in America and Brazil, politics relating to queer people, and the reality of women identifying within the queer community in both countries. 4 The Fight for Equality in the United States Queer people have long been silenced, marginalized and criminalized in the United States. It was not until after World War II, when queer people were targeted by Nazis, that queer people first become recognized as a minority status by organizations, with people working to protect them. When these organizations began to help raise positive awareness of the community, politicians and other groups began pushing back with harsher words, laws, and societal expectations which did not favor queer people (Richards, 2014). The Lavender Scare refers to the time period in which America saw an upsurge in vilification and legal harassment fueled by a national panic about sexual perverts, a phrase that was often code for homosexuality (Richards, 2014, para. 1). This fear greatly related to the Red Scare of communism. In 1947, Representative Arthur Miller of Nebraska claimed homosexuals were threats to national security because they were more prone to blackmail because homophobia supposedly made gays vulnerable and potential victims of blackmail, but the era s policies of increasing homophobia theoretically made gays even more vulnerable to blackmail (Shibusawa, 2012, p. 725). Shortly after the senator s claims, 91 people were fired from the federal government, accused of homosexual behavior (but who could have actually been transgender, bisexual, or other identities within the queer community) along with thousands more throughout the years of the lavender scare (Johnson, 2006). The first American organizations to fight for the rights of queer people owed their existence and growth to activist women. In 1950, Madeline Davis founded the Mattachine Society in New York which became the first sustained queer rights organization. Later in 1955 the Daughters of Bilitis was formed as a lesbian rights organization which hosted more private events in fear of social and legal persecution in San Francisco (CNN Library, 2017). 5 Queer organizations for women were created in some part as a response to events happening during the Lavender Scare. In 1952, the American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality as a sociopathic personality disturbance. In 1953, President Eisenhower signed the executive order that banned homosexuals from employment with the federal government (CNN Library, 2017). Additionally, these organizations were a result of queer women being left out of feminist groups and gay rights organizations. Queer women faced misogyny and discrimination from queer men and organizations; straight cisgender women, such as Betty Friedan - a leader of the National Organization of Women (NOW), worried that associating the feminist movement with lesbians would hurt the cause of women s rights. Likewise, women faced sexism and the problems of heteronormativity during the Civil Rights Movement (Newton, 2006). The misogyny of parts of the Civil Rights Movement helped to spur the feminist movements and the homo and transphobic parts of the feminist movement contributed to new understandings that expanded the concept of human freedom (Hurwitz and Verta, 2017). Queer women became the link connecting the gay rights and feminist movements, especially queer women of color. Gay bars were separate from lesbian bars in places like Philadelphia where the bars were also segregated by race. Yet bars for African-American queers were a place for all, collapsing the gender divisions that drove white lesbians and gay men to separate spaces (Newton, 2006, para. 16). For the most part, though, queer women spaces were primarily separated from gay men and even some feminists, creating a community with queer women-owned bookstores, bars, record labels, and even vacation resorts. However, these spaces often faced the fear of police raids and strict roles among butch and femme white queer women caused those who were neither to be suspected as an undercover cop. The little attention given to 6 the violence against queer people throughout history has focused on queer men, although it certainly affected women as well (Newton, 2006). Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, organizing sought to bring community among queer people, but usually separated by gender and sometimes race. The well-known protest which helped the queer movement immensely was the Stonewall Riots. It is crucial to understand these riots were not the beginning or end of the movement, but rather a turning point that created momentum. It also helped bridge the gap between the multiple identities within the queer community from drag queens to transgender women to gay men later on. Like other protests, regulars at the Stonewall Inn formed a plan to fight back against the police as they became irritated by the disruption of what was supposedly a safe space (Abelove, 2015). Drag queens especially were crucial in rallying people together to actually participate in the riots. When police raided in 1969, Stonewall patrons, both queer and allies, were ready to fight back (Segal, 2015). The gay liberation movement is usually dated as beginning a year later with a growth in organizations, direct action and government petitions and lawsuits. It was during the liberation movement that queer women fought back against the National Organization for Women s heteronormative stances and the misogyny of gay men s movements, as well as created more spaces specifically for queer women. Queer people of faith also started to gain more acceptance and the first out gay minister was ordained by the United Church of Christ. Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) was created to create support not only queer people, but also those close to them, and remains a prominent organization throughout the country today after becoming a national organization in 1982. The Gay Liberation Front (GLF) was founded and 7 provided support for all queer people, rather than only lesbian women and gay men, a few weeks after the Stonewall Riots (Cloud, 1999). As social organizations helped bring up queer women, they started to feel more empowered to run for political office. In 1974, the first ever openly queer person in America to win an election was Kathy Kozachenko, a lesbian from Ann Arbor, on the Michigan City Council. That same year, Elaine Noble was the first openly queer person in America to win a state election and served as state legislator (CNN Library, 2017). However, it is important to put all of this into perspective. These queer women were white lesbians, who had the most privilege and recognition during the gay liberation movement and still do today. It was not until 1991 that Sherry Harris, a black openly queer woman, was elected into office but she also had privilege as a lesbian. Other ethnic/racial minorities gained an openly queer person in office even later (Asanti, 1996). Although the language used in this paper is primarily inclusive of all identities besides those who are straight or cisgender (such as queer and LGBT+), little research and history on the queer community does the same. Gay is used to refer to the entire community often while lesbian and gay are used to refer to all queer men and women. Despite there being little attention or credit given to bisexual, intersex, transgender, and all other queer women, there is plenty of evidence of them existing and fighting for their rights (CNN, 2017). There have been great strides for the queer community since the gay liberation movement. In the 1990s though, there was a great amount of regression. The Don t Ask, Don t Tell policy was put into place which meant queer people serving in the military could not be openly out. In 1996, Clinton also enacted the Defense against Marriage Act that defined marriage legally between one man and one woman, banning federal recognition of same-sex marriage (CNN Library, 2017). These policies and laws dehumanized queer people. If they could not be 8 out and proud or be married, what about them was necessarily human? It was also during this time that a rise of hateful speech is documented. Although queer , dyke , and faggot had been used to demean queer people as insults or jokes among straight and cisgender people, it was during this time that these words started to diminish with the queer community. Although queer is being reclaimed today by younger generations, it was not used for a long time because of how hurtful it was for the community (CNN Library, 2017). In 2003, the Supreme Court finally ruled that it is unconstitutional to criminalize homosexual behavior . This helped gain more momentum for even better policies. Don t Ask, Don t Tell was finally repealed in 2011 (CNN Library, 2017). However, transgender people were still not addressed in the new bill and therefore were not guaranteed the same rights as sexual minorities until 2016 (Stewart-Winter, 2015). Some states began to legalize same-sex unions and others same-sex marriage. 2015 marked a well-known historical moment in which the Supreme Court ruled it is unconstitutional to deny same-sex couples the right to marry (CNN, 2017). With such a basic human right finally afforded, it has allowed queer people to start fighting against employment, housing, and other discrimination (Stewart-Winter, 2015). Today, there are no federal anti-discrimination laws protecting queer people. This does not only mean queer people can be denied a job or fired for their identity. It also means that queer people cannot file a workplace complaint if they are being harassed, targeted, or treated unfairly in their workplace. Former President Obama had signed an executive order claiming those who contracted federal employees could not discriminate based on sexual orientation and gender identity and another that those contractors had to prove their policies aligned with the former executive order. Unfortunately, President Trump recently rescinded the Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces executive order, which called for the proof of compliance with federal laws. This 9 will make it easier for employers to discriminate against queer people. Queer people are also not protected under the Fair Housing Act, which leaves queer people in fear of being discriminated against in the workplace, and being denied a place to live (Ford, 2017). Although there are several laws in favor of queer people today, the reality of the queer community is not all rainbow flags and Pride parades. Religious freedom bills often allow discrimination against queer people based on religious views in private businesses, schools, and even adoption agencies. Queer people also face several other issues such as being isolated from their family as well as poor mental health and addiction problems. Because queer bars became and continue to be one of the few safe spaces for the community, queer people have higher rates of alcohol, smoking, and drug addiction as bars are more likely to have those substances around or in them. Furthermore, the stigma of being queer and being forced to come out because of the heteronormativity of the United States causes higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders along with suicide, especially for queer youth. 40% of homeless youth are queer, which is a 400% overrepresentation compared to straight and cisgender youth. Among LGB+ women, there are higher rates of obesity compared to straight women. The use of drugs and alcohol as well as overeating have been linked to experiences of discrimination, which queer women often face both as queer and as women but also even more so for immigrants, women of color, and other minority identities. Queer women also face sexualization in pornography, media, and even their personal relationships with others. Bisexual and pansexual women especially receive this around males (Fredriksen-Goldsen, 2014). Brazilian Context In Brazil, the LGBTT+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transvestite are the politically correct terms in the country) community seems to have many more laws in their favor 10 than the United States. Most laws protecting or favoring the community came before the equivalents in the United States as well. Unfortunately, LGBTT+ people in Brazil have not always had such privileges throughout history and the reality of the situation for the people varies differently from what one may expect. The community faces a lot of stigma and fear of violence. Homophobia is rooted in the Spanish Inquisition in Brazil. LGBTT individuals were seen as sodomites; people believed that sodomites living in their communities could lead to, and were the cause of, disasters, plagues, or famines (Rosenburg, 2011). The Catholic religion played a large part in this stigma and still does today with the Catholic culture being large and visible in Porto Alegre. Evangelical Christianity, with its roots from America, also contributes to harsh stigmas against the queer community today, with about 25% of Brazilians identifying with the religion (Jacobs, 2016). During the military regime, many people suffered and were oppressed. In 1988, this regime ended and was replaced by a constitutional democracy which has lasted to today. A constitution was made by politicians and the people of Brazil, declaring certain aspects of life, such as health care, a basic necessity for a quality and fair life. This led to free health care for the entire country. Many other people or aspects were protected with this constitution. However, LGBTT+ people were excluded in spite of the LGBT movement s call for discrimination based on sexual orientation to be outlawed this issue (Vianna and Carrara, 2006, 3). Most recently, a law was pushed to be passed to include LGBTT+ people in history, sexual education, and other classes. Instead, it was stopped before it could become law because some feared it would make straight children become gay (Councilwomen, 2017). This fear is a large part of why such education needs to be included. 11 Additionally, patriarchy limits queer women. Before 1972, women were required to have a husband s permission for anything related to reproductive services. This left queer women without access to certain aspects of health care or with no choice but to be with a man. This patriarchy permeated throughout the LGBTT+ movement when it began during the 1970 s. Men were mostly the leaders and most visible activists. However, queer women, began to have a stronger and more visible presence in activism in the 1990s. It was during this time that queer women were not just part of gay (men s) or (straight) women s rights organization, but they began to have their own community, organizations, and even seminars. Today, there are two marked holidays to celebrate queer women (Vianna and Carrara, 2006). During this time period, rights for the LGBTT+ community, especially for those of a diverse sexual orientation, began to come to fruition. Organizations began to earn federal funding and grants, which was financial and emotional support, as well as recognition for the community. However, most laws protecting queer people vary by state. Many states have criminalized discrimination in housing, the work place, and protected public displays of affection among same-sex couples. Only some allow same-sex couples to adopt (Vianna and Carrara, 2006). Although it was not until 2011 that same-sex marriage became legal for all Brazilians, Rio Grande de Sul courts ruled in favor of marriage equality in 1998 and 2001 (Secretaria, 2015, para. 3). The discrimination laws were not resolved to include queer people until 2008, but even more disappointing is that the resolution to this issue and other literature protecting the community generally focuses on men, leaving queer women left behind politically and socially (Rosenburg, 2011). 12 Participant Observation in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande de Sul, Brazil I arrived in Brazil on Friday June 2nd, 2017 and spent eight days there, leaving on June 9th. Most of my observations come from individuals who are queer; I specifically quote and use Isabella Ortiz (whose real name has been changed in this research to protect her privacy) most often as a way of guiding my discussion and observations. Of course, I do recognize that my study is based primarily on one interview. While Isabella s experience is that of one individual and is not generalizable to the whole queer community, it does provide an important and rich example of the kinds of issues queer individuals face. I also gained insight at the different organizations we visited and the councilwomen we met, learning both from discussing the queer community directly as well as the silences surrounding the community. My participant observation both exceeded and failed my expectations. Although I did not want it to be the case, I was prepared to mostly write about silences surrounding the queer community. The first few days of our study affirmed my worries as queer people were rarely discussed, yet ironically, there were more queer people around me than I am ever around except in queer-specific spaces. However, I never once met a transgender person and only met one woman who knew a transgender person. It was during this time that I decided my paper should be dedicated to women of different sexual orientations rather than the entire queer community. Transgender people deserve a paper of their own with more quality and accurate information than I was able to obtain due to my limited time and access during my time in Porto Alegre. It seemed almost peculiar that, for the most part, the queer community was primarily only discussed among the Brazilians when I brought the topic up or asked specific questions. My wonder at this was primarily due to the fact that based on my research on the laws surrounding the queer community, everything seemed great. Actually, it seemed to me that queer people had 13 it better in Brazil than in America. However, my participant research instead informed me of the reality of being queer in Brazil. The most prominent issues I found to surround the community in Porto Alegre were safety, lack of education about queer people, and little positive visibility in daily life. Although violence was not necessarily always on the forefront of people s minds in terms of being attacked on the street as one might imagine, the issues of safety ranged in different forms for queer people in Brazil. For some, safety did mean worrying about violence such as bullying, physical abuse, rape, or slurs. For queer women, the most common worry is rape. In Porto Alegre, the culture surrounding the queer community is hostile but also believed to be a choice or a defect in a person. Men believe, whether honestly or just as an excuse to rape women, that by raping a girl with a sexual orientation which is not straight, she can be changed or become straight again. Although this is scientifically incorrect and morally wrong, it is a legitimate belief by some in Porto Alegre. This only heightens the percent of women, and even more so queer women, who are sexually abused or raped (Ortis, 2017). A direct result of this culture and attitude towards queer women is a feeling of uneasiness and lack of safety in many situations and places in Porto Alegre. Isabela, the woman I interviewed, found it easier to list the times and places she feels safe or comfortable enough to hold her girlfriend s hand rather than list the scenarios in which she feels unsafe. Surprisingly, she was most worried being in or around neighborhoods where her or her girlfriend s family or friends lived. 19-year-old women are scared to hold each other s hands because of the fear of someone they know seeing them, which is disappointing and disheartening (Ortis, 2017). Although I learned the specifics of Isabela and her queer identity in our interview, I learned even more in our (almost) daily interactions with one another. Before the interview, 14 which took place on one of the last days of my time there, I already knew she was not out to everyone. She directly told us not to talk about her significant other or sexuality around anyone except the few people she was discussing her girlfriend with during one conversation. She did claim that she was not out to everyone yet and not everyone knew about her girlfriend because people don t need to know everything I do, but also confessed to me that after coming out to her parents, they requested she slowly come out to people over time (Ortis, 2017). She has been out to her friends and parents for a year now, but she still is not out to close family friends or other family besides her sister (Ortis, 2017). A stereotypical lesbian cousin in the family played a large part in how comfortable Isabela was in coming out to her family, but even more so affected her parents perception of the community (Ortis, 2017). This cousin was considered the black sheep of the family, but Isabela was the opposite (Ortis, 2017). She was the traveler, the exchange student, did volunteer work; people have high expectations of her. Somehow, being queer is not considered a high expectation, but rather would lower people s opinions of her. Because the cousin who was already out was not well-liked by those around her and was inappropriate during a family gathering, this became Isabela and her entire family s impression on the queer community. Isabela still harbors negative stereotypes of her own community, claiming she doesn t want to offend anyone, as if being queer could somehow be offensive, which is why I want to do it [come out] slowly (Ortis, 2017). Fortunately, this cousin coming out did help Isabela to feel more comfortable in her sexuality and discussing it with her parents. It actually led to a conversation not about Isabela, but about queer people after her cousin came out. This helped her dad to be more mindful later on when he wanted to know if she was seeing anyone because he asked if I had a girlfriend or 15 boyfriend (Ortis, 2017). Whether Isabela gave indications that she was similar to her cousin during the conversation with her parents, having such an inclusive question about ones partner is not an opportunity afforded to many queer people even after they come out. The most difficult part of this interview was learning that it was most difficult to discuss her sexuality with her mother. Her mother works directly with a legal service for the transgender community, which helps to organize people who want to change their name and has a day to help people with the legal paperwork and the court process. The service even accompanies individuals to the courts. Her mother is a part of this. It was difficult for me to reconcile that her mother works with this progressive legal service for transgender people, yet still seems to have difficulty accepting her daughter s identity. This duality seems to hurt Isabella. Her mother can somehow be supportive enough to seem to care about the queer community for her job, to get credit for helping people, but not actually be supportive of her own daughter. It may be that her mother is more worried for her daughter s safety and the legal problems she may face in the future. Although less likely, it is a possibility that her mother is supportive of people with diverse gender identity, but not diverse sexual orientation. In general, the public in Porto Alegre and globally are more accepting of people who are not heterosexual than those who are not cisgender (Ortis, 2017). However, her mother s reasoning likely is not limited to any of these or just one, but to more of a complex issue which cannot be answered simply. Overall, there is little visibility for the queer community in Porto Alegre, in part due to safety concerns. When I asked Isabela what a normal day looked like for her, she answered with the average activities for someone at the age of 19. I wanted to know if she saw or visited queer safe spaces on a normal day, which she responded to with a no. I was surprised by this because she also claimed she felt connected to the LGBT+ community. I realized our ideas of community 16 were different, but I also realized I was similar in my thoughts when I had only been out for a year. My perception has drastically changed of what my part and connectedness to the community is now that I have been out for five years. For her, she felt automatically part of the community because of oppression and harassment she faced for her identity. I need to be part of the community even though I don t know my orientation (Ortis, 2017). Isabela also explained to me that although there is an organized community, again it is not as physically visible. The places she told me that she felt were safe spaces were the following: University LGBTT Zona, some friends houses, some professors and students at university, and gay clubs if she really needed help because I know there will be people like me (Ortis, 2017). I found this to be alarming; clubs and bars are meant to be places to have some fun and usually drink alcohol. They are not supposed to be where people claim they feel most safe. What about queer people who are alcoholics and seeking sobriety? Even the university safe zone poses a problem, considering not every queer person goes to college, which also leaves out professors and students as safe people. The only ideal is the friends homes, which is not actually ideal. Without even my bringing it up, Isabela told me her safe spaces were not enough. She envisioned a community center that was either a house or building. It would be a place where people could go if something has happened to them, whether that be violence or being kicked out of their homes and anything else. She expressed that queer people in Porto Alegre need that support (Ortis, 2017). A community center would be like a women s empowerments group, Isabela explained, helping a specific group of people meet the needs they have. This is all so important because people need to see us [queer people] (Ortis, 2017). Although the reality for Isabela now is nowhere near ideal or perfect, there is hope for progress in Porto Alegre. She expressed that there are people who think everything is great 17 because we already have gay marriage, that sexual diversity is just a phase, or that the Pride parade is a waste of time and space, but blamed lack of education for these misconceptions by people (Ortis, 2017). However, she also expressed that there are people who see the importance of the Pride parade, the visibility it permits, and who accept queer people. Additionally, there are programs like Canta Brazil in schools working specifically for social justice issues. We learned of many different topics they cover, which differ each year, but one topic the group covered last year with the eighth graders they worked with was the queer community. Specifically, they focused on education about the queer community such as what sexual diversity and gender identity mean and how to support people who are part of the community. The goal was to help reduce the amount and effects of bullying on queer children, which they also made sure to discuss with the children. When one of my fellow peers asked the group what their favorite part of the program was, one young girl responded that hers was seeing how people s perception of the LGBT community changed by the end of the program. I heard people say offensive things at the beginning and some were unaccepting, but now everyone better understands and accepts everyone (Mose, 2017). The End of the Rainbow-Hope There is hope for the queer community across the globe, which my study in Brazil and the United States has affirmed. Although queer people are not granted all that they deserve, there is continuous progress being made in many avenues, which was made very apparent by my research. To make better progress for the empowerment and equality of queer women, visibility in school, media, and daily life are required along with legal protections and education. Legal protections are a basic key in queer women s empowerment and especially equality. Brazil has been making incredible strides and continues to do so in the political realm 18 for queer people. Unfortunately, women are excluded too often from this literature. Although the United States does not have as many laws and has progressed slower than Brazil, the country has relatively maintained keeping a sexist framework away from the policies protecting queer people. If the United States and Brazil s structure could merge into one cohesive way of dealing with queer policy, it would be a much more equal world. However, without education, policy is almost worthless. A queer woman must have knowledge and understand what her rights are. If a woman faces sexual harassment in the workplace because of her sexual orientation, she may not know she has the power to stop it. Without knowing the legality of her identity, she will continue to be a victim believing that what is happening to her is just or fine or feel a sense of hopelessness that there is nothing she can do. Alternatively, a legitimate example in the United States context is knowing how to protect oneself based on protections not afforded to queer people. Queer people deserve the right to know that there are no federal laws protecting them from being fired or hired based on sexual identity. Women especially so as they already face challenges in the workplace. Knowing there is no protection for queer people, women can be more mindful in how they disclose relationships or other personal details in order to protect themselves, if they so choose. Although policies are discussed often in the United States, I come from many advantages in that I have access to the internet, cable, and attend college. All of this gives me easy access to understand the policies surrounding myself better. However, in Brazil and the United States there is little to no conversation about queer people during schooling. It isn t until almost adulthood that queer identities are deemed appropriate to discuss and even then still not in school. Educating people not just about their rights, but also about the queer community in general gives queer people a 19 more equal opportunity to thrive and may even help straight and cisgender peers to better understand the community. One of the most crucial aspects towards improvement for the queer community is visibility. There need to be more well-known queer artists, actors, and even activists who are well known. Mainstream media in Brazil and the United States excludes the queer community, leaving queer people to be a separate category. This somewhat helps queer people to feel more seen, but then they are still not very visible to those outside the community. Visibility is especially crucial for LGB+ women. For many of them, being queer is something erotic and incredibly sexualized in porn and mainstream media. A woman kissing a woman in both states is generally deemed as something done to please a man. Seeing women in legitimate relationships in media can help women feel more safe and comfortable in their sexuality, but seeing them in real life can be even more empowering. In Brazil, it is even harder because women do not feel safe. There is not enough visibility in daily life. Because of lack of education and visibility, it is a continuous cycle of women not being able to hold each other s hands in a market which makes for even less visibility. In the United States, legal protections are simply lacking. It is not just one of these aspects which help queer women to feel more empowered or become equal citizens, but all of them. They all must work together within a society to make it more whole and fair. Understanding the history of the queer movements, politics surrounding the queer community, and the reality of queer people today in the United States and Brazil can help create a stronger community and improve queer people individually, as well as create better and more allies. Studying women s empowerment and equality cannot be limited to just straight and cisgender women. To do so is to demean all that queer women accomplished and continue to do 20 so today. Women s empowerment and equality means giving women the tools and resources to be their full, authentic selves including being queer. 21 References Abelove, Henry. (July 10, 2015). "How Stonewall Obscures the Real History of Gay Liberation." Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 61 (no. 40), B14-B16. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Asanti, Ta'Shai. (November 1996). "Black Lesbians, Religion & Racism." Lesbian News, vol. 22 (no. 4), 27. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Cloud, John. (June 1999). "Gay Liberation: `We're Here. We're Queer. Get Used to It.'." Time International (Canada Edition), vol. 153 (no. 23), 183. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. CNN Library. (July 2017). "LGBT Rights Milestones Fast Facts." CNN. Cable News Network. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/19/us/lgbt-rights-milestones-fastfacts/index.html. Ford, Zack. (March 29, 2017). "Trump revokes executive order, weakens protections for LGBT workers." ThinkProgress. Retrieved from https://thinkprogress.org/trump-gutted-lgbtexecutive-order-8dd0e3be69a/. Fredriksen-Goldsen, Karen I., et al. (November 2014). "The Health Equity Promotion Model: Reconceptualization Of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, And Transgender (LGBT) Health Disparities." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, vol. 8 (no.66), 653-663. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4350932/. Hurwitz, Heather and Verta Taylor. (October 2012). Women s Cultures and Social Movement in Global Contexts. Sociology Compass. Vol. 6 (10), 808-22. Retrieved from http://www.broomcenter.ucsb.edu/sites/www.broomcenter.ucsb.edu/files/publications/pdf /verta2.pdf. Jacobs, Andrew. (July 5, 2016). Brazil Is Confronting an Epidemic of Anti-Gay Violence. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. 22 Johnson, David K. (2006). The lavender scare: the Cold War persecution of gays and lesbians in the federal government. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Leslie, Dorian, and Lauren Mac Neill. (2013). "Double Positive: Lesbians and Race." Encyclopedia of Lesbian History and Cultures. Retrieved from http://www.sascwr.org/files/www/resources_pdfs/anti_oppression/Double_Positive.pdf. Morris, Bonnie. (n.d.) "History of Lesbian, Gay, & Bisexual Social Movements." American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history.aspx. Mose, Liliana. Personal Interview. 5 June 2017. Newton, Esther. (2006). "Annotated Bibliography: Lesbians and the 1950s Lesbians in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1999 outhistory.org." Retrieved from Outhistory.org. Ortis, Isabela. Personal Interview. 8 June 2017. Richards, Jacob. (December 2014). "From One to Windsor: Sixty Years of the Movement for LGBT Rights." GP Solo, vol. 36 (no.6). Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Rosenburg, Adrienne. (2009). The Brazilian Paradox: The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Battle for Human Rights. Human Rights and Human Welfare: An Online Journal of Academic Literature Review. Revisiting Human Rights in Latin America, 1630. Retrieved from http://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/latinamerica2/digesthuman%20rights%20in%20latin%20america%20vol%202-brazil.pdf. Secretaria, Municipal de Turismo de Porto Alegre. (September 17, 2015). PORTO ALEGRE Capital of Diversity. Porto Alegre LGBT. Retrieved from www.portoalegre.travel/lgbt_ing/porto-alegre-capital-of-diversity/.. 23 Segal, Mark. (September 24, 2015). "I was at the Stonewall riots. The movie Stonewall gets everything wrong." PBS. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/art/stonewall-movie/. Shibusawa, Naoko. (2012). "The Lavender Scare and Empire: Rethinking Cold War Antigay Politics." Diplomatic History, vol. 36 (4), 723-52. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Stewart-Winter, T. (2015). "After Marriage Equality, What?" Dissent, vol. 62 (4) 35-38. Retrieved from Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/dss.2015.0078. United Nations Population Information Network (POPIN), UN Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, with support from the UN Population Fund (UNFPA). 2017. Guidelines on Women s Empowerment. United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/popin/unfpa/taskforce/guide/iatfwemp.gdl.html. Vianna, Adriana, and Srgio Carrara. (2006). Sexual Politics and Sexual Rights in Brazil: A Case Study. Sexuality Policy Watch. Retrieved from www.sxpolitics.org/frontlines/book/pdf/capitulo1_brazil.pdf.  ...

... EMPOWERMENT THROUGH EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SCHOOLS IN BRAZIL AND THE UNITED STATES Elizabeth Hilt July, 2017 2 With a grant and a fun group of feminist scholars who were interested in studying cultural and legal Brazilian equality, I packed my suitcase and headed to Brazil for 10 days of intense research. I am a recent graduate of Marian University in Indianapolis, with a future as a high school psychology and government teacher, and as such I was interested in the question of gender equality within the classroom setting. I had originally set out to study the inclusion of women in the history curriculum and classroom specifically, but due to our schedule and the pull of the Brazilian citizens I met, my topic widened to include how gender stereotypes limit the quality of the education, the discontent in the current educational system in Brazil, and the changes that Brazilians wish to see in their schools and societies. KEYWORDS: Education, Empowerment of Girls, United States, Brazil 3 To begin this investigation, it was important to look at the problems and goals set forth by the United Nations to put women's empowerment in a worldly context. Since I had never left the United States of America before, I wanted to get as much background information before I embarked on the task of measuring women's empowerment in Brazilian schools. After grounding the basics in a worldly context, I moved more specifically to a comparison of Brazilian and the United States educational experiences and goals in secondary schools. With a general comparison of lives through observation, the next items to research were movements and pushes for change in Brazilian schools to counteract problems that they were experiencing. Finally, this paper will include a discussion of possible solutions and my final thoughts on the future of women's empowerment. One of the largest goals of education is to provide the tools to create future leaders who change the more unsatisfactory parts of the world around them. Background of Women s Educational Equality As the United Nations declared, Obtaining a quality education is the foundation to improving people s lives and sustainable development.1 A fair, equitable, and quality education for all people, regardless of gender, is so important that it was listed as the first target for the United Nation s Goal 4, which says By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.2 In fact, over half of the 10 targets that the United Nations have named for Goal 4 specifically include women to alleviate the gender gap that has persisted in the past. The proposed indicators to this target include primary and secondary completion rates for girls and 1 Education United Nations Sustainable Development. United Nations, n.d. Web. June 27, 2017. 2 Education United Nations Sustainable Development. United Nations, n.d. Web. June 27, 2017. 4 boys. The United Nations sets these goals, and different entities have similar interests in mind and unique ways to measure this. One of these measures is the Global Gender Gap Index which is published by the World Economic Forum. It is no surprise that one of the four pillars of the Global Gender Gap Index is focused on Educational Attainment, which is further broken down into literacy rate, enrollment in primary education, enrollment in secondary education, and enrollment in tertiary education. The United States, for example, has achieved scores of one or higher on each of these components, which indicates that there is gender equality in educational attainment. While this may be true, the quantitative evidence suggests that gender equality has been achieved, the quality of experiences and the gender-blind education may be questioned. Ensuring that what happens in the classroom matches the emerging statistics is important. Sure, girls are going to school, but what are they being taught directly and indirectly that will impact their sense of selfworth later in life? Educational gender equality is a worthwhile goal because it has been found that incorporating women s actual experience, conceptions of gender, and sexuality deepens students understanding of the intricate links between politics and culture, private and public life, and the process by which national identity is forged.3 How are girls learning to understand the complexities of their lives and their roles in society? Are the intended and unintended messages setting them up for success and providing the tools to empower young women? These are questions that cannot be answered by numbers and statistics, but are arguably equally as important as the qualitative questions of if they are going to school at all. 3 Accampo, Ellinor. Integrating Women and Gender into the Teaching of French History, 1789 to the Present. French Historical Studies 27, no. 2 (April 1, 2004): 292. 5 Looking at the Gender Gap Index once again for Brazil, educational attainment is similar, if not better, than in the United States. The data for enrollment in secondary education, however, is missing or lacking. This leads us to question the quality of the female experience inside Brazil s classrooms. Although girls are showing up to school the same amount as their male counterparts, are they being represented in the same manner? Is their quality of education directed towards the female experience and problems in the same manner as their male classmates? Are females represented in the same way as males are? These are the questions I sought to answer during my observations in Brazil and, ultimately, I found some answers. Other researchers were interested in the same questions as I was. One of these researchers was Marlia Carvalho, author of "The Influence of Family Socialisation on the Success of Girls from Poor Urban Communities in Brazil at School. As Marlia Carvalho would argue, Often, upon learning that girls were attending classes and doing well, both social movements and public policy-makers concluded that there were no gender issues that needed to be addressed in relation to basic education.4 It is critical, to both her and I, that women are, first of all, attending school, but more importantly, that they are being given the tools to become empowered members of society. Being an empowered member of society has five separate components, including women s sense of self-worth; their right to have and to determine choices; their right to have access to opportunities and resources; their right to have the power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home; and their ability to influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and economic order, nationality and internationally.5 After visiting 4 Carvalho, Marlia. The Influence of Family Socialisation on the Success of Girls from Poor Urban Communities in Brazil at School. Gender And Education 27, no. 6 (January 1, 2015): 583-598. Accessed May 9, 2017. ERIC, EBSCOhost. 5 Guidelines on Women s Empowerment. United Nations, n.d. Web. May 18, 2017. 6 Brazil, I would argue that some women are working very hard and consciously to achieve women s empowerment. This can be seen through women trying to better the lives of women around them. In this paper, I will outline several instances where women are rising above their situations to help themselves and those around them in order to succeed in spite of difficult circumstances. Carvahlo would argue that in fact Brazil has achieved equality and women s empowerment. Through her research of families from the poor urban communities, she concluded that, The girls I had the opportunity to study from urban low-income sectors in Brazil not only had better school achievement then their brothers, but, despite living under situations of poverty and gender oppression, they also experienced ways of constructing autonomy and disrupting the strict rules of circulation in the public space and in the sexual division of labour. Their better performance at school did not result solely from the fact that they were disciplined and obedient, but mainly from their active investments in learning and from their dreams of a better future." In her research, Carvahlo declared that women are actually benefiting from their education more than men. Women have been encouraged to pursue higher education in a way than men have not been pushed. The emphasis on women s success has pushed female students to be more prosperous and strive for higher goals than their male classmates. I was intrigued and hoped that this would prove to be true. While it is truly a success and great that women are meeting and exceeding the goals set forth by the United Nations Goal 4, I was interested to see if these academic successes would transfer to meaningful cultural change and respect. These questions led me to my next point of investigation: what was daily life like for Brazilian women? What laws were there to protect women, young and old alike? With Brazilian waxes, butt lifts, 7 and other sexualized beauty trends bearing the label "Brazilian," I was curious what pressures and cultural realities women in Brazil face daily. Comparison of Women s Situation in Brazil and in the United States The situation for women in Brazil is similar in many ways to the experience of being a woman in the United States. For example, women in both countries are subjected to the pay gap, in which women experience unequal payment for equal work. In the United State in 2015, women working full time in the United States typically were paid just 80 percent of what men were paid, a gap of 20 percent.6 During our stop to meet with councilwomen, Councilor Sophia Cavedon Nunes compared this figure to Brazil s pay gap where women are making only twothirds of what equally qualified men are earning for the same job. Repeatedly, when asked about maternity leave in the United States, the questioners were consistently surprised by the United State s lacking maternity leave laws. When compared to Brazil s cooperative mother-centered laws, gasps of disbelief would be heard when we explained how little the United States government does to assist women and newborns. In the end, we heard over and over again that the laws in the books in Brazil are fairly strong and inclusive of women, but in practice the culture does not permit women to be treated equally. The laws to protect women are good, but the systems and traditions of Brazil are permissive to put women below men. This leads to a high abuse rate and obvious sexualization of women. These outside cultural factors will no doubt affect the position of women in the classroom and their sense of empowerment upon graduation. Before visiting Brazil, I wanted to consider the existing research to know what to expect in a traditional Brazilian classroom, more specifically what the reality of the female students 6The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap (Spring 2017). AAUW: Empowering Women Since 1881. N.p., n.d. Web. June 25, 2017. 8 education compared to their male peers. Female students success in school was documented in the article Exploring modes of Communication Among Pupils in Brazil: Gender Issues in Academic Performance by Adla B. M. Teixeira, Varlos E. Villani, and Silvania S. do Nascimento.7 This study was striking because it was focused on the quality of education for male and female students dependent on the teacher s emphasis on equality.8 Their report made an important distinction that Girls and boys have different needs, and different social experiences, which lead them to different ways of perceiving and interacting with the world. It is important that these differences are considered in the learning process.9 This being absolutely true, it is pivotal that teachers understand these differences and tendencies in order to attempt to remedy patterns that lead to unequal educational experiences. For example, Teachers sometimes demonstrate an acceptance of boys dominance in class, and an acceptance of girls submissive or good behaviour, and this occurs at the cost of the full academic development of both girls and boys. These practices also contribute to the persistence of sexual segregation in careers.10 This is the reality of both the United States and Brazil. Being aware of these tendencies and the long-term effects of biased behavior should be taught in educator training courses. This was something that I hoped to observe in Brazilian schools and definitely saw. As this research suggests, In the case studied here, we have seen girls taking their school duties more seriously than boys. In Brazil we need to re-think a classroom structure, which currently leads to a permissive environment for boys where they can exercise their macho power not only 7 Teixeira, Adla B. M., Carlos E. Villani, and Silvania S. do Nascimento. 2008. Exploring modes of Communication Among Pupils in Brazil: Gender Issues in Acadmeic Performance. Gender & Education 20, no. 4: 387-398. Accessed May 18, 2017. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 9 over girls but also over teachers. Despite the efforts of girls in schools, Brazilian women continue to occupy worse positions in the labour market, with lower pay.11 Further, The acts of resistance (boys) or submission (girls) to the demands of the school and teachers do not lead pupils to make full use of the possibilities that formal education can provide to their future lives in society. The persistent gender disparities still cause significant costs to the wellbeing and development of the nation. The changes in each and every classroom are dependent on the teacher and their capabilities to create an egalitarian classroom that strives for equal education. With a small change like this, large-scale societal impacts will be observed over time. This culture of inequality was observed in many instances during our visit in Brazil, most specifically in schools. While we did not have an opportunity to observe students in the natural classroom environment or for extended periods of time, the same patterns noted in their study were noticed in the interactions I had with high school students. The first day we had the opportunity to attend a local high school and sit down with a group of 35 high school students at a school in Porto Alegre. During the discussion, both the students and researchers had the opportunity to question culture, gender, and society. As we asked various questions and introduced ourselves, it became increasingly obvious that the findings of Exploring Modes of Communication Among Pupils in Brazil: Gender Issues in Academic Performance were being replicated in classrooms throughout Brazil, including this session! While the number of males and females in the school were relatively equal, the answers would always immediately come from a confident, lower-pitched masculine voice. That is not to say that the females would not respond or were uninterested. I believe that this lack of soprano could be attributed to the 11 Ibid. 10 confidence that was instilled in boys at a young age that was absent in girls education. When the group was asked about this phenomena, the whole group seemed to agree with the students who said that It s normal to hear the boys and not the girls. The girls themselves said that they felt that this happened because girls are more shy, that boys scream, and that generally girls spoke more softly. The consequences of this, however, are devastating. A group of female students in the front just shrugged their shoulders and said they just have to get used to boys talking over them. This feeling could be devastating to the empowerment of women beginning at a young age. If they do not feel free to give opinions, ask questions, and feel heard, society is unintentionally reinforcing the idea that their thoughts, questions, and solutions are inherently less respectable and important than men. This same phenomena occurred another time when we attended a meeting of a rural school program. Solely based on the verbal participation of the seven females and seven males, I was led to perceive that there were more boys given the opportunity to join the program than girls. When all students were asked to talk about their projects, the male students talked louder, longer, and more confidently. Additionally, the body language led me to believe that the males felt that their place in the room was more important and deserving of a larger space. For example, the male students were man spreading, or to sit with one's legs far apart, taking up too much space on a seat shared with other people.12 The physical power, along with the dominance of the conversation, makes it difficult for female students to feel empowered in the same way as their male peers. But that s not to say every day for female students is bleak and inaccurate. At an innercity school in Porto Alegre, I had the opportunity to see young girls working on STEM projects 12Mandspread. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. June 15, 2017. 11 with real and applicable purposes. Female teachers were pushing young women to work on these amazing projects that give women skills, knowledge, and confidence. Additionally, all faculty and staff seemed to be aware of the problems associated with stereotypes and treating girls differently than boys, and all claimed to be especially careful and aware of the situation. One example was in the teacher training for the Growing Up Right project in the rural district of Santa Cruz; the curriculum aimed to change cultural attitudes and to protect women. When the teachers of this program became aware of one of their female students performing oral sex on a male student on a bus, the group went to the student s home to talk to his parents and him, but found a permissive family who blamed the female for doing the act. This was not permitted in the program, and they used their power and program to change the cultural acceptance of such acts that embarrassed females and used them for sexual purposes. But no one wants to admit that there is a problem and that they are not part of the solution. The reality is that there is an issue of inequality in education in Brazil, just as there is in the United States. Girls are being treated differently than their male peers. This is a result of the stereotypes and definitions of femininity and the role of women in society, but also because of the permissiveness of school officials, parents, and community members. Until girls are treated equally, pushed similarly, and gender roles are loosened to allow for outspoken girls and respectful boys, these problems will continue to exist. Change is Coming On September 23, 2016, in Sao Paulo, Brazilian President Michel Temer called for a more flexible educational experience, by doing away with most mandatory subjects, with the objective of making school more attractive to students.13 The newly adopted model makes only 13 Alves, Lise. Brazilian Government Announces New Education Model. The Rio Times, N.p., 12 Portuguese and mathematics mandatory for the three years of high school. Additionally, the school day would be lengthened to full day. All of these proposed changes are made with the goal to increase interest in school and to have students study their interests more deeply. These incentives are attempting to combat the high dropout rates of the 8 million Portuguese private and public school systems. According to the Ministry of Education, while the dropout rate for primary school is 1.9 percent, the rate surges to 11.5 percent in high school.14 So although the gender gap does not exist by number, or may favor female students, the number of students receiving quality education is concerning. While in Brazil, it did not seem as though this program has successfully been put into action. What is pulling or pushing students out of the classroom? Are there any statistics about which sexes are leaving school? But even before this bill had the possibility of being passed, a larger movement was occurring. Beginning in November 2015, threats of mass school closures, cuts to the education budget and attacks on teachers working conditions drove hundreds of thousands of pupils, many of them as young as 12, to shut down and camp out in schoolsThe occupations most immediate motivation is the imminent approval of a proposed constitutional amendment (named PEC 241 by Congress) to freeze government spending for 20 years, ostensibly to allow the country to overcome its worst economic crisis in a century following two consecutive years of economic contraction."15 During our visit with Porto Alegre councilwomen, we were informed of this movement. Kindly, the four women helped to connect me to a student marcher named Ana Paulo.16 She and her peers united to march in protest of their under-supplied, under-staffed, and structurally- 23 September 2016. Accessed May 19, 2017. 14 Ibid. 15 Lemos, Gabriel, and Migue Andrade. Brazil s High School Students Continue Occupations in Face of Repression. World Socialist Web Site, International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), 9 Nov. 2016. Web. June 14, 2017. 16 Ana Paulo (occupation movement) in discussion with the author, June 2017. 13 unsound schools. They were inspired by the movement that had previously been held in Sao Paulo that helped to bring schools together to work to create better learning conditions for students, parents, and teachers. Prior to the march, the students, parents, teachers, and community members met to discuss the issues they felt their schools had throughout the entire city. More than 1,000 students attended the meeting at Ana Paulo s school alone. They created a list of complaints which included those in attendance feeling like they didn t learn the materials they were being tested on. It was amazing to watch Ana Paulo s face light up as she described the power that this entirely student-led movement had. At the conclusion of the meeting, the students decided it was time to ask for change from the government. After being ignored and using laws asking for a place to be heard, the final straw that led to the march came when the government sent a paper that was posted all around the schools stating that any student could be expelled for speaking out or marching. After deciding to ignore this threat and move forward with the marches and occupations, the community helped and sends supplies to schools, but the government did not. Ana Paulo s school was the fifth school to join the occupation out of 187 schools total in 2016. So, did their student-led efforts work? In some ways, yes. On the first day after the occupation, the budget was renewed for school reformation. Additionally, a forum was formed to create a platform to discuss all school problems such as food, security, curricular unit themes, and reviewing each school s budget. But in other ways, their efforts proved futile as the government canceled course offerings, the forum eventually ended, and dialogue was discontinued. However, Ana Paulo ended on a hopeful note and was obviously proud of her work. She feels that to this government, education is not important, which is different than the 14 prior administration. Schools now have a grant to privatize, which she feels will give them more access to resources. Her pride rested on two large victories: First, no arrests were made, and second, no students were criminalized. Despite the threats made by the government, the students who marched were ultimately safe. No known teachers were fired for expressing their opinions or standing with students. Further, she was proud of the organization of the marchers. There were no assigned roles such as spokesperson or leader. All students, both male and female, took turns talking to reporters, cooking and cleaning, and other mundane tasks included in a movement. This was very important for the movement because they felt that they were breaking gender norms in addition to advocating for changes in their schools. During my interview with the student marcher Ana Paulo, I asked her to describe her ideal equitable school situation. Her dreams and ideals left me rooting alongside her for that day to arrive. First and foremost, she used the adjective respectful repeatedly to emphasize the marches goal of creating a climate of cooperation and mutually-shared goals of equality. She would also like to see no racism or sexism in the classroom or in the school environment. This is obviously a wonderful goal, and it is disheartening that this needs to be said by a 19-year-old student as a goal for her educational experience. One example of a prevalent fear that she and her peers experience on a regular basis currently is homophobia within the school community. She described how publicly gay couples are referred to guidance counselors. Even more, parents are also called, with the goal of reforming the child s sexual preferences. This sense of fear goes directly against the goal of empowerment for anyone, but especially for women. In this dream world that Ana Paulo described, and that all members of society should aim for, Ana Paulo described the purpose of school consciously and accurately: School makes students free to discuss together with peers and with teachers. This helps all people learn to accept all. 15 Conclusion At the end of my time in Brazil, I was left with more questions than answers. How does education become equal regardless of gender? Through each of our meetings on the streets and with women in various positions in their society, I was continually in awe of how the beginnings of childhood leave lasting impact on the lives of women in Brazil and in the United States. The ideal world that Ana Paulo describes should be the goal: An inclusive education for all. It is important to note that movements are taking place across large spectrums of people to achieve this. First and foremost is the occupation movement that Ana Paulo helped to lead. Student who speak out for their wants and needs and demand for them to be met by the education system are a big part of this puzzle. Additionally, teachers who care. Teachers who are aware. The group of educators we met are doing their best to remedy this situation. By teaching beyond the standards and including cultural issues such as domestic violence, gender roles, and other real and applicable skills for both males and females to be aware. Students are the change and a possible solution. But in order to change the current system, students and their parents must be active participants. In addition to young women and young men being active participants in being the change they wish to see, all women can be part of the community. For example, women community leaders who have been affected by domestic violence are being trained as paralegals, and are making changes they wish to see in the criminal justice system. Education in the end is the solution to problems. The more aware people are of their rights, the problems they see soon become passable. 16 Bibliography Accampo, Ellinor. Integrating Women and Gender into the Teaching of French History, 1789 to the Present. French Historical Studies 27, no. 2 (April 1, 2004): 292. Alves, Lise. Brazilian Government Announces New Education Model. The Rio Times, N.p., 23 September 2016. Accessed May 19, 2017. Ana Paulo (occupation movement) in discussion with the author, June 2017. Carvalho, Marlia, The Influence of Family Socialisation on the Success of Girls from Poor Urban Communities in Brazil at School. Gender And Education 27, no. 6 (January 1, 2015): 583-598. Accessed May 9, 2017. ERIC, EBSCOhost. Education United Nations Sustainable Development. United Nations, n.d. Web. June 27, 2017. Guidelines on Women s Empowerment. United Nations, n.d. Web. May 18, 2017. Lemos, Gabriel, and Migue Andrade. Brazil s High School Students Continue Occupations in Face of Repression. World Socialist Web Site, International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), 9 Nov. 2016. Web. June 14, 2017. Mandspread. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. June 15, 2017. The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap (Spring 2017). AAUW: Empowering Women Since 1881. N.p., n.d. Web. June 25, 2017. Teixeira, Adla B. M., Carlos E. Villani, and Silvania S. do Nascimento. 2008. Exploring modes of Communication Among Pupils in Brazil: Gender Issues in Acadmeic Performance. Gender & Education 20, no. 4: 387-398. Accessed May 18, 2017. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.  ...

... The Effects of Saccharin on Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive Bacteria Alexis N. Felty, Taylor A. Kowalski, Parker J. Williams Marian University College of Arts and Sciences 3200 Cold Spring Rd. Indianapolis, IN 46222 Sigma Zeta National Science & Mathematics Honors Society Research Award Recipient Abstract A common misbelief is that non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) are healthier than natural sugars, only because of their lower caloric content. Individuals are unaware of the consequences that high amounts of NNS pose to the bacteria in the gut microbiome. In the current research, the viability of two common bacterial phyla found in the gut microbiome, Proteobacteria and Firmicutes, was analyzed after being introduced to varying ratios of saccharin, a common NNS. A gram staining technique was adapted and a microplate assay method was utilized to quantify the difference in ratios between gram-negative Proteobacteria, E. coli, and gram-positive Firmicute, S. aureus. Saccharin posed an inhibitory effect on both E. coli and S. aureus, while E. coli responded with a linear dose-dependent trend and S. aureus illustrated a modest response to increasing ratios of saccharin. This further suggests that excess NNS has a negative impact on the gut microbiome by altering the natural bacterial ratios. If individuals are aware of the consequences caused by varying dosages of NNS, diets can be altered in order to increase overall health and lower the likelihood of becoming obese, in turn lower obesity rates in America. Introduction Approximately one-third of all Americans (160 million individuals) are either obese or overweight [1]. Research has fallen short in discovering the prevention of obesity. While the disease is partially genetic, recent studies suggest the ratio of species in the gut microbiome may be an underlying cause of obesity. A common misbelief is that non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) are healthier than natural sugars, only because of their lower caloric content [2]. Many individuals are unaware of the consequences that high amounts of NNS pose to the bacteria in the gut microbiome. If individuals are aware of the consequences caused by varying dosages of NNS, diets can be altered in order to increase overall health and lower the likelihood of becoming obese, in turn lower obesity rates in America. More than 98% of the gut microbiome consists of bacteria that either belong to the Firmicutes or Bacteroidetes phyla [2]. Studies have shown that the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (F:B) is negatively correlated with body mass index [3]. As an individuals body mass index increases, their abundance of Firmicutes increases while their abundance of Bacteroidetes decreases [3]. Firmicutes are gram-positive, largely facultative anaerobes, while Bacteroidetes are gramnegative, obligate anaerobes. The difference in gram type is due to the thickness of the peptidoglycan cell wall that surrounds the bacterium. According to a phylogenetic tree, gramnegative Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria are closely related, with a recent common ancestor [4]. This common lineage allowed for the substitution of the obligate anaerobic Bacteroidetes with the facultative aerobe Proteobacteria without deviating from the focus of the gut microbiome, as these represent logical experimental equivalencies. Escherichia is a gram-negative Proteobacteria, while Staphylococcus is a gram-positive Firmicute [5]. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were compared to determine if, and what, the relationship is between gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria in the gut microbiome. The scope of current research was to determine if excess NNS would produce the same inhibitory effects as compared to the F:B when looking at the gram-type rather than at phyla. Understanding how altering the amount of each abundant bacteria in the gut will help individuals to comprehend how diets that are high in NNS affect the biodiversity of the gut microbiome. Background studies are insufficient, not because of the lack of information, but because of the wide diversity within the gut microbiome. Some studies have focused on the gut microbiome community as a whole, but not on individual or isolated species. One specific study found that sucralose, a common NNS, altered the F:B ratio in the gut microbiome of mice [6]. Saccharin was used in the current study, as it is another common NNS in the daily diet. While this research has widened the understanding of the gut microbiome, previous research has yet to demonstrate the effect of NNS of bacteria from different phyla or gram types. Our research aims to study how various ratios of NNS, such as saccharin, selectively affect the individual members of a gut community, with varying genetic and biochemical properties. If gram-negative E. coli and gram-positive S. aureus react comparably to the F:B ratio in the presence of saccharin, then E. coli viability will be inversely proportional, while S. aureus viability will be directly proportional to the ratio of saccharin. Viability was quantified via fluorescence using a microplate assay. This new approach of studying the gut microbiome helps in further understanding the effects that common artificial sweeteners have on both grampositive and gram-negative bacteria, and ultimately obesity. Materials and Methods Bacterial Strains and Glycerol Stocks Escherichia coli (Strain: K-12) was purchased from Carolina (Item# 155068). Staphylococcus aureus subsp. aureus Rosenbach (Strain ID: NCTC-8532) was purchased from ATCC (Catalog Number: 12600). Overnight bacterial cultures of E. coli and S. aureus were grown in Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) to be used for the creation of glycerol stocks. A 50% glycerol solution was made by diluting 100% glycerol in DI H2O. Overnight bacterial growth of E. coli was combined with the 50% glycerol solution in a 1:1 ratio and the solution was mixed. The glycerol stock was divided into 1mL microfuge tubes and stored at -80C. The same method was used to create S. aureus glycerol stocks, which were also stored at -80C. Creating Reagent Stocks and Working Solutions Creation of 10 mL Tris-HCl Stock Solution The Tris-HCl solution was used to dilute the stains to working concentrations in a neutral buffer. 0.5mL 1M Tris-HCl pH 8 was diluted in 49.5mL DI H2O [7]. The pH was confirmed at 7.4 on pH paper. Solution was stored at room temperature. Preparation of SYTO 13 Working Solution SYTO 13 was used to quantify E. coli, a gram-negative bacteria. 5mM solution in DMSO (provided by manufacturer) was diluted in 10mM Tris-HCl in a 1:10 ratio to create a 0.5mM working solution [7]. The working solution was divided into multiple light-resistant 1mL microfuge tubes and was stored at -80C. Preparation of HI Working Solution HI was used to stain S. aureus, a gram-positive bacteria. 5mg of HI was dissolved in 1mL DMSO to create a stock solution of 5mg/mL. The stock solution was diluted in 10mM Tris-HCl in a 1:50 ratio to create a 0.1mg/mL working solution [7]. The working solution was divided into multiple light-resistant 1mL microfuge tubes and was stored at -80C. Aerobic Broth In order for E. coli and S. aureus to grow, an aerobic media was created. Per 150mL DI H2O, 4.50g TSB and 0.600mL 0.25% Resazurin were dissolved in solution. Resazurin is an O2 indicator and was included in order to observe the O2 content of the media during bacterial growth. For each experimental trial, 3 replicates of broth were created with the above values of TSB and Resazurin. Saccharin (Catalog Number: 240931) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Varying concentrations of saccharin were added to the tubes according to Table 1. Ratios of saccharin were calculated using the amount of saccharin found in 1 packet of NNS. Dosages were designated as no NNS with 0.00g/mL, a low dosage with 0.08g/mL (equivalent to 1 packet of NNS), and a high dosage with 0.22g/mL (equivalent to 3 packets of NNS). The same broth was used for the tubes with the same ratio of saccharin. 12mL of each broth was added to 15mL capped tubes labeled 1-18, which were autoclaved at the lowest setting and allowed time to cool completely. Tube Saccharin Bacteria 1-3 0.00g/mL E. coli 4-6 0.08g/mL E. coli 7-9 0.22g/mL E. coli 10-12 0.00g/mL S. aureus 13-15 0.08g/mL S. aureus 16-18 0.22g/mL S. aureus Table 1. Saccharin dosages for E. coli and S. aureus Inoculation of E. coli and S. aureus for Individual Growth Bacteria needed to be added to the tubes of autoclaved broth. A 1mL tube of thawed E. coli in glycerol stock was centrifuged at 30,000 RPM x 15 minutes. The concentrated bacterial pellet was resuspended in 750uL no NNS TSB. Three flames were lit on the benchtop to aid in prevention of excess oxygen contamination. 50uL of bacterial suspension was added to each labeled tube of autoclaved broth. This was completed for S. aureus, using the same no NNS TSB and inoculation technique. Tubes were then allowed to incubate at 37C for 48 hours. Fluorescent Protocol for Quantification of Bacterial Viability Incubated tubes were centrifuged at 3,000 g x 15 minutes to isolate a bacterial pellet. The supernatant was decanted and the pellet was resuspended in 1mL DI H2O. Solution was transferred to a 1mL microfuge tube, labeled and placed in the refrigerator. 2uL of SYTO 13 working solution and 5uL of HI working solution were added to each microfuge tube. Mixed bacterial suspensions with stains were incubated in a dark cabinet for 15 minutes at room temperature to allow stains to bind to the bacteria. Each tube was centrifuged again at 10,000 g x 15 minutes. Pellets were decanted and resuspended in lmL PBS broth. This double centrifugation technique removed the unbound stain from the suspension, thus reducing background in the microplate assay. 200uL of each suspension was added to a light-sensitive 96 well-plate and 2 wells were filled with PBS broth as a negative control. The 96 well-plate was placed in a FilterMax F3 Multi-Mode Microplate Reader and SoftMax Pro software was used to measure intensities of fluorescence. For the green channel, excitation was set at 485 nm and emission was set at 535 nm, while for the red channel, excitation was set at 518 nm and emission was set at 595 nm [7]. Statistical Methods and Analysis The microplate assay reader produced output intensity values of fluorescence for each of the experimental replicates. These values were normalized to the no NNS dosage and were analyzed using the statistical functions in Microsoft Excel. A two-tailed T-test was run between each experimental dosage to determine the statistical significance of the data. Results were considered significant at a p value < 0.05. The graphing functions in Microsoft Excel were used to generate graphical representations of bacterial viability via intensity of fluorescence and percent inhibition. Standard error of the mean (SEM), N=2 error bars are included in graphical representations, along with asterisk markers which represent significance of the p values between doses of NNS. * denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p < 0.01, and *** denotes p < 0.001. Results Viability of E. coli is inversely proportional to saccharin ratio E. coli is a gram-negative Proteobacteria closely related to Bacteroides. One study found that saccharin and other NNS have a bacteriostatic effect on E. coli viability [5]. However, it is unknown if this effect was due to the phyla of E. coli or the gram-type. To further investigate the effect of saccharin, we treated E. coli in an isolated culture with increasing concentrations of saccharin to test the hypothesis that gram-negative bacteria will decrease in the presence of saccharin. Viability was measured via a double staining method of SYTO 13 and HI. While the HI showed some fluorescent signal, this was predominantly due to bleed over into the excitation wavelength (Supplemental Fig.2). A two-tailed T-test was run to determine if the difference in fluorescence was significant or not. Analysis of the green, SYTO 13-stained channel demonstrated an overall decrease in the viability of E. coli with an increasing ratio of saccharin after 48 hours of incubation. According to Fig.1, a significant decrease in the intensity of fluorescence of E. coli was detected between each experimental group. This decrease was proportional to the ratio of saccharin added to the TSB broth. There was a significant decrease of 19.9% in viability between no NNS and a low dosage with a p value of 0.0071. A significant decrease of 35.7% was also demonstrated between no NNS and a high dosage with a p value of 0.0002. Thus, the viability of gram-negative E. coli decreased in a dose-dependent manner when cultured with saccharin, which supported our hypothesis. Fig.1 SYTO 13 Fluorescence of E. coli in the Presence of Saccharin. Data was normalized to E. coli with no NNS (-). Low dosage (+) is equivalent to one packet of NNS, while high dosage (++) is equivalent to three packets of NNS. Error bars represent Standard Error of the Mean (SEM), N=2. A two-tailed T-test was run to analyze the fluorescence of E. coli using =0.05. A linear, dose-dependent decrease in E. coli was observed. Viability of S. aureus decreases with an increasing ratio of saccharin S. aureus is a gram-positive Firmicute, which is highly concentrated in the gut microbiome. However, it is unknown what the effect of excess NNS in an otherwise nutrient rich broth might be on this class of microbe. Therefore, we treated S. aureus in an isolated culture with increasing concentrations of saccharin to test the hypothesis that gram-positive bacteria will increase in the presence of saccharin. While S. aureus was also stained with SYTO 13, the viability of grampositive bacteria is better represented in the red channel, as HI binds exclusively to gram-positive bacteria and the effects of SYTO 13 are reportedly quenched (Supplementary Fig.1). A twotailed T-test was run to determine if the difference in fluorescence was significant or not. Analysis of the red, HI-stained channel demonstrated an overall decrease in the viability of S. aureus with an increasing ratio of saccharin after 48 hours of incubation. As seen in Fig.2, there was a significant decrease of 21.3% in the intensity of fluorescence between no NNS and a low dosage which was noted with a p value of 0.0293. A significant decrease of 24.8% was also demonstrated between no NNS and a high dosage with a p value of 0.0254. Surprisingly, an insignificant decrease of 3.43% in intensity was noted between a low dosage and a high dosage. As there was a decrease in the viability of S. aureus with the addition of saccharin, our hypothesis was rejected for the gram-positive bacteria. Fig.2 HI Fluorescence of S. aureus in the presence of Saccharin. Data was normalized to S. aureus no NNS (-). Low dosage (+) is equivalent to one packet of NNS, while high dosage (++) is equivalent to three packets of NNS. Error bars represent Standard Error of the Mean (SEM), N=2. A two-tailed T-test was run to analyze the fluorescence of S. aureus using =0.05. A nonlinear, modest response was observed in E. coli. E. coli shows a linear, dose-dependent response to saccharin and S. aureus shows a nonlinear, modest response to saccharin As both bacteria were negatively inhibited in the presence of saccharin, the overall hypothesis that E. coli viability would be inversely proportional and S. aureus viability would be directly proportional to the ratio of saccharin was rejected. When graphing the percent inhibition of increasing saccharin ratios on E. coli and S. aureus, both demonstrate a similar, linear inhibition from no NNS to a low dosage. In Fig.3, this is seen as an inhibition of approximately 20% from no NNS to the equivalent of one packet of NNS. A divergence of inhibition is observed from a low dosage to a high dosage. E. coli responds to an increasing ratio of saccharin in a linear, dosedependent fashion. S. aureus, on the other hand, shows a modest response to an initial dose of saccharin. Unlike E. coli, saccharin appears to have a maximal inhibition of 20-30% in S. aureus, as increasing doses do not affect its viability after an initial low dose. Fig.3 Percent Inhibition of E. coli and S. aureus in the Presence of Saccharin. E. coli shows a linear response to an increasing ratio of saccharin, whereas S. aureus response appears to level off at a ratio greater than a low dosage. Discussion Previous research has demonstrated the direct correlation between the viability of gut microbiota and the overall health of an individual. In this study, we examined the effect of increasing saccharin ratios on the viability of E. coli and S. aureus. Viability of bacteria was quantified using fluorescent output from a microplate assay, which utilized SYTO 13 to quantify gramnegative E. coli and HI to quantify gram-positive S. aureus. We found that an increase in saccharin decreased the viability of both E. coli and S. aureus when compared to the negative control group of no NNS. However, the magnitude of that effect varied, as E. coli demonstrated a dose-dependent effect and S. aureus was not impacted by increasing dosages after the initial dose of saccharin. Several studies have addressed the effect of NNS on gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. A majority of the gut microbiome consists of bacteria that either belong to the gram-positive Firmicutes or gram-negative Bacteroidetes phyla [2]. Studies have shown that the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (F:B) is negatively correlated with body mass index [3]. Due to methodological limitations in the laboratory, the obligate anaerobic Bacteroidetes were replaced with facultative aerobes Proteobacteria, namely E. coli. According to a phylogenetic tree, gramnegative Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria are closely related, with a recent common ancestor. Further, both Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria are equally represented and important in the composition and health of the gut microbiome. Thus, Proteobacteria was a logical model organism from which to launch current studies. Previous research has yet to demonstrate the effect of NNS on the co-culture ratio of bacteria from different phyla or gram types. This study makes strides towards identifying how NNS may selectively affect bacteria with different genetic and biochemical properties. Research has already identified that the gut microbiome is influenced by many factors, including, but not limited to, genetics and diet. The study at hand focused on the dietary influence, in particular how the addition of NNS into the diet will affect the viability of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. A previous study found that the presence of NNS, specifically saccharin, had a bacteriostatic effect on E. coli [6]. The results of our study support previous studies, as an overall decrease of 35.7% in the viability of E. coli was demonstrated with the addition of saccharin. The current study saw a significant decrease in the viability of both E. coli and S. aureus in the presence of an increasing ratio of saccharin. According to Fig.1, E. coli appears to be directly dependent on the amount of saccharin present. A significant, linear decrease in intensity of fluorescence in E. coli was observed between both no NNS to a low dosage and no NNS to a high dosage. In Fig.2, there was also a significant decrease of over 20% in the viability of S. aureus. This inhibition appears to have a greater dependence on the presence or absence of saccharin, rather than on the amount of saccharin added, as the difference in inhibition between no NNS to low dosage and no NNS to high dosage was insignificant. The expected results based on phyla were not reproduced when focusing on gram type. According to the inhibition trends seen in Fig.3, it can be assumed that if we were to further increase the saccharin ratio, these trends would continue. We would expect E. coli to continue in a linear, dose-dependent fashion, while a further increase in the saccharin ratio past a low dosage will have little to no effect on the viability of S. aureus. An increasing ratio of saccharin has a greater inhibitory effect on E. coli, as there is a linear, dose-dependent rate of inhibition. In regards to S. aureus, it appears as if saccharin is unable to have an inhibitory effect greater than 30%. This suggests that increasing from 2 to 3 packets of NNS will have a greater effect on the viability of E. coli than it will on S. aureus. While the mechanism which causes the difference in inhibitory trends is currently unknown, a noteworthy difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria is the thickness of the peptidoglycan cell wall. Further testing is warranted with other Firmicutes and gram-positive bacteria from other phyla to determine if the thickness of the peptidoglycan cell wall has an effect on inhibition. If these studies are inconclusive, the difference in inhibition could be due to Firmicutes having evolved different metabolic functions as compared to those of other phyla. SYTO 13 stains all bacteria, both gram-negative and gram-positive. Therefore, E. coli and S. aureus were both represented in the green channel. HI stains and quenches the green fluorescence of SYTO 13 only in gram-positive bacteria, such as S. aureus. As seen in the Supplemental, an overlapping in the excitation and emission wavelengths in the green and red channels of the microplate assay resulted in fluorescence of both E. coli and S. aureus in both channels. Due to this overlap and quenching, analyzing the green channel in Fig.1 is more representative of the viability of gram-negative E. coli, while analyzing the red channel in Fig. 2 is more representative of the viability of the gram-positive S. aureus. As shown in Supplemental Fig.1 and Fig.2, the spectral overlap has some effect on the quantification of S. aureus, as it is not entirely quenched. However, E. coli is relatively unchanged. One way to overcome this would be to refine the excitation and emission wavelengths of the channels, as well as reduce the amount of background in the assay. In this study, the viability of bacteria was only observed in individual cultures. The gut microbiome consists of hundreds of species of bacteria, all of which interact in an overall anaerobic environment. This study did not take into consideration how these interactions would affect the viability of E. coli and S. aureus, in addition to differing ratios of saccharin. If time and funding permits, a future study would look at the viability of E. coli and S. aureus in a coculture, as opposed to individual cultures. The future study would also take into consideration the anaerobic nature of the gut microbiome. An additional future study could be performed that looks at the effects of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria of different phyla, to determine how this variation would affect a bacterial ratio. This would hopefully provide a more representative conclusion as to how bacteria interact in an intact gut microbiome. The strengths of the current research are its significance and novelty. There is a current controversy over diets varying in NNS concentration and the impact they have on the gut microbiome. In addition, research has yet to identify the effect of NNS on gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Another strength is that an optimal growth range was identified for each bacteria. This ensured that the bacteria reached its exponential growth phase before saccharin was added. Conclusion In the current study, we explored the effect of an increasing ratio of saccharin on the viability of gram-negative E. coli and gram-positive S. aureus. Seeing that both E. coli and S. aureus decrease in the presence of saccharin, a high NNS diet has a negative impact on the overall health of ones gut microbiome. While this study only looked at the bacteria in individual cultures, additional studies are needed with co-cultures in order to further explore the relationship between gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria in the gut microbiome. References [1] Mokad, A., Murray, C., & Ng, M. (2014, May 28). The vast majority of American adults are overweight or obese, and weight is a growing problem among US children. Retrieved April 1, 2019, from http://www.healthdata.org/news-release/vast-majority-americanadults-are-overweight-or-obese-and-weight-growing-problem-among [2] Thomas, F., Hehemann, J. H., Rebuffet, E., Czjzek, M., & Michel, G. (2011). Environmental and gut bacteroidetes: the food connection. Frontiers in microbiology, 2, 93. [3] Koliada, A., Syzenko, G., Moseiko, V., Budovska, L., Puchkov, K., Perederiy, V., ... & Sineok, L. (2017). Association between body mass index and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in an adult Ukrainian population. BMC microbiology, 17(1), 120. [4] Kong, Fanli, et al. "Characterization of the gut microbiota in the red panda (Ailurus fulgens)." PloS one 9.2 (2014). [5] Lee, EunYoung, et al. "Grampositive bacteria produce membrane vesicles: proteomics based characterization of Staphylococcus aureusderived membrane vesicles." Proteomics 9.24 (2009): 5425-5436. [6] Wang, Q. P., Browman, D., Herzog, H., & Neely, G. G. (2018). Non-nutritive sweeteners possess a bacteriostatic effect and alter gut microbiota in mice. PloS one, 13(7), e0199080. [7] Mason, D. J., Shanmuganathan, S., Mortimer, F. C., & Gant, V. A. (1998). A fluorescent Gram stain for flow cytometry and epifluorescence microscopy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 64(7), 2681-2685. Supplemental SYTO 13 stains both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Thus, both E. coli and S. aureus were stained by SYTO 13. Fluorescence of E. coli stained by SYTO 13 is shown in Fig.1. Fig.4 shows the intensity of fluorescence of the SYTO 13-stained S. aureus read in the green channel of the microplate assay. This figure shows that an increasing ratio of saccharin had no impact on the intensity of fluorescence of S. aureus. Given that HI stains only gram-positive bacteria and quenches the effects of SYTO 13, S. aureus fluorescence is best represented in the red channel, as seen in Fig.2. Fig.4 SYTO 13 Fluorescence of S. aureus in the Presence of Saccharin. SYTO 13-stained S. aureus did not demonstrate a meaningful decrease in the presence of saccharin. A slight increase in the intensity of fluorescence of E. coli can be seen in Fig.5. This was deemed unremarkable and can be attributed to the variability of the assay. HI only stains gram-positive bacteria, in this case S. aureus. E. coli fluoresced as there was an overlap in the excitation and emission wavelengths between the green and red channels of the microplate assay. E. coli intensity is better represented in Fig.1. Fig.5 HI Fluorescence of E. coli in the Presence of Saccharin. A minimal increase in the intensity of E. coli was observed.  ...

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... DO IT AT HOME! The goal of this experiment is to create a moldable plastic while exploring bonding. It is easily done in the classroom and even at home! All you and your student will need is: 1 cup milk (2% works best, but any kind works!) 4 teaspoons acid (lemon juice, vinegar, soda, or any other type of safe household acid you can find at home or the grocery store) Measuring cups Measuring spoons Disposable cups that hold at least 1 cup of milk Paper towels, cheesecloth, or gauze Plastic spoons Microwaveable container A detailed protocol is included in the accompanying student worksheet. Briefly, you will: Heat the milk in the microwave for about 2 minutes, or until it is about as warm as you want for hot chocolate. 5 minutes on 50% power also works well. Once the milk is warm, add the acid of your choice and begin to stir the mixture. You will see clumps forming immediately but continue stirring for about 30 seconds to 1 minute. Once you are done, take the curds out of the liquid and squeeze the excess liquid out using the paper towels. Begin kneading the plastic until it becomes smooth it can now be molded into any shape you want! Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. TRY SOMETHING NEW! One of the most fun parts of an experiment is coming up with new ideas with your student and seeing what happens when you change something! Try brainstorming some questions with your student, make predictions about what you think will happen, and then repeat the experiment to see what is the same and what is different! Here are some questions to get started: What do you think will happen if we use more milk or more acid? What do you think will happen if we use a different type of milk? How do you think the polymer might be different if we use cold milk? What about boiled milk? What are some different types of acid? How might they change the type of polymer we get? This experiment is meant to strengthen your students STEM identity to show that science is all around them and can be done anywhere. Cool experiments like these are easily done at home and can have a lasting impact on their future and careers. HOW DOES IT WORK? The milk plastic in this experiment forms due to a chemical reaction between small proteins in milk. This is called a polymer. A polymer is a chemical or molecule composed of repeating units. Polymers can take on different shapes. They can be three-dimensional (like a cube), two-dimensional (like a sheet of paper), or one-dimensional (like a chain). Think of a Lincoln log structure for 3D, a mesh net for 2D, and a paper or paper clip chain for 1D. Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. Polymers are covalently linked together by bonds between the repeating units. Polymers are found in nature but can also be created for specific purposes. The most abundant example of a natural polymer is DNA, which is composed of nucleotide monomers. Plastics like those we find in squeeze bottles and types are polymers of different simple chemicals. Milk contains a specific molecule called casein. In milk, casein forms a micelle, or a small sphere. Although casein micelles are extremely stable, when you add heat and acid, it causes casein and another milk protein, whey, to bind to each other in a long chain. The combination of the heat and acid create a chemical change where you can watch the bonds being broken and reformed in a new way. While the experiment is occurring, students will immediately see a change in the milk once they start stirring after the acid is added. The milk will separate and curd will form as the denaturing and reforming process that is taking place. WANT MORE INFORMATION? Check out some of these resources: American Chemistry Polymer Basics Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. Properties of Polymers Intro to Bonding Structures and Bonding What can we do with milk polymers? Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. Purpose The goal of this activity is to learn how to make casein plastic from milk and explore the properties of plastic. Skills: This activity will help you practice these skills: x Describe the differences between starting and final ingredients x Observation skills Knowledge: This activity will also help you to become familiar with the knowledge that is needed in fields like chemistry or chemical engineering: x Plastic polymers x Protein bonding and denaturing Task x Today you will: o Listen to an introduction about bonds between molecules o Mix ingredients together to form a polymer o Make observations about the reaction that forms the polymer. o Brainstorm why observations. different ingredients might lead to different o Share your ideas! x As you are completing the experiment consider these questions: o Have you ever seen milk separate into thick chunks and liquid? Why did that happen? o Why does the milk form curd when the acid is added? What do you think the curds are made of? o What aspects of the acid cause the changes in the milk? o Why does the kneaded polymer look and feel different from the unkneaded polymer? Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. x Discussion questions to consider after the experiment: o What would happen if room temperature or cold milk is used instead of heated milk? o How would increasing or decreasing the amount of acid affect how much polymer you get? o What are other household acids that you could use for this experiment? Tips for Success: x Focus on vivid descriptions of the reaction and the final product. o Use descriptive words such as cloudy, opaque, shiny, etc. o Compare what you see to common things such as the thickness of syrup, oil, or melted butter. o Feel free to draw pictures to capture what is happening. o Focus your descriptions in a way that someone who has not conducted the experiment can visualize what you saw. x Some good descriptions you can use: o Texture: rough, smooth, bumpy, sticky, tacky o Color: white, gray, clear, shadowy, uneven o Odor: sour, sharp, floral, yeasty o Size: grain of sand, size of a dime o Shape: uneven, round, oblong, stringy o Example: the curds formed after the reaction were small about the size of rice, not see through, and white. The liquid looked like chicken broth, but it smelled sour like vinegar. The polymer was bumpy and sticky at first but after kneading it wasnt sticky, but it was still bumpy. x Excellent work includes writing down your observations at all points of the reaction: o What everything looks like before you mix it o What happens immediately when you add them together o What (and how long) the reaction happens o What it looks like when it is done o What changes happen as you knead the polymer Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. Instructions 1. Read all the directions first. _____1.1. Read the directions through to the end. _____1.2. Get the observation table out and ready. 2. Obtain materials. _____2.1. Get 1 cup of hot milk and 4 teaspoons of your assigned acid. Everyone will get a different acid, so be sure to take good notes so you can share your observations later! _____2.2. Prepare cheesecloth by folding 4 layers on top of itself or fold about 4-5 paper towels in a stack for later use. _____2.3. Write down your observations about your starting ingredients. 3. Combine liquids to create a reaction. _____3.1. Pour the 4 teaspoons of acid into the milk and begin mixing with a spoon. _____3.2. Observe the changes happening in the liquid and record them on your worksheet. Pay attention to the color, texture, odor, size, and shape of the milk/curds as well as the speed of the changes. _____3.3. Mix the solution for about 30 seconds until you see no more curds forming. _____3.4. Let the mixture sit for about 1 minute to let the curds settle to the bottom (this makes it easier to remove them). _____3.5. What do the curds look like? How many are there? Record your observations in your worksheet. 4. Remove and dry curds. _____4.1. Use the cheesecloth or gauze to filter the curds from the liquid. Find a partner to help by holding the cloth above an empty cup. Take your cup and pour the liquid into the cup through the cloth. Finally take all sides of the cloth and squeeze the extra liquid out into the cup. _____4.2. Place the curds in a pile on a paper towel and pat dry if needed. _____4.3. What do the dry curds look like? What do they feel like? 5. Knead polymer. _____5.1. Begin to massage and squeeze the polymer slowly. This is called kneading. Some of the polymer will stick to your hands but as you keep kneading it, the polymer will come off. _____5.2. Keep kneading for 2-4 minutes or until it is a smooth, solid mass. _____5.3. How did the curds feel? Did that change as you kneaded them? How did their appearance change? Record your observations in your table. Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. 6. Clean up _____6.1. Set polymer aside to dry for 24-48 hours _____6.2. Throw cup with leftover milk, cheesecloth/gauze, and paper towels in the trash (NOT down the drain) _____6.3. Wipe down area with a clean cloth and wash your hands. 7. Think-Pair-Share _____7.1. Brainstorm different ways to do this experiment. Think about how you could change the milk, the acid, or the amount of plastic you get. Hold on to these ideas for the class discussion. _____7.2. Find a partner who used a different acid and compare observations of your polymers. Write down similarities and differences of your plastics on your worksheet _____7.3. Come up with an explanation of why your polymers are the same or different and write it down in your table. Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. Worksheet The goal of this activity is to learn how to make casein plastic from milk and explore the properties of plastic. This worksheet is where you will record all your observations. Description of starting ingredients: Texture Color Odor Size Shape Other Observations Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Acid Description of reaction: Describe what you see as you add the acid into the milk; focus on texture, color, odor, size, and shape descriptions. Note the speed of the reaction. Texture Color Odor Size Shape Speed Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu. Description of final product: Texture Color Odor Size Shape Other Observations Polymer Polymer Polymer Polymer Polymer Polymer Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Think-Pair-Share: Describe similarities and differences between your polymer and your partners polymer. Similarities Differences Final explanations and observations: Any comments or explanations of the experiment. Meghann E. H. Roessler and Colleen L. Doci. Making Plastic Polymers from Milk. Celebrate Science Indiana 2020. Any questions, ideas, or suggestions, please email cdoci@marian.edu.  ...